Psychological Research

9.1 Introduction

Research is one of the best methods of exploring new ideas, or expanding on previous knowledge. In psychology, this is a significant component to understanding the behaviours of human beings. This module will focus on psychological research by providing a description of this type of study, along with the rationales for doing so and types of research used in this field. Research ethics will also be explored as it related to psychology, as will the importance of data analysis and interpretation. The module will conclude by providing three case studies of high-profile research studies gone wrong.

9.2 What is Psychological Research?

Psychological research is the main method of contributing to this field of study. Without conducting research, there would be no way to show how a psychologist, or researcher more broadly, came to their conclusions. Defining psychological research is equally as simple: it is the act of collecting, analysing, and interpreting data related to the experiences and behaviours of either individuals or groups.

Research is generally conducted by a research psychologist and can have clinical, educational, or occupational applications, depending on the scope of the study. When it comes to psychological research, there are three accepted rationales for conducting a study. The first is to find new ways to measure and describe behaviour. The ability to understand the why, when and how as they relate to specific events, and how they occur, is another research purpose. Thirdly, research is conducted so that newfound information can be applied to everyday issues.

Fact

When it comes to the Placebo Effect (a method of testing how a medication works, or behaviours around taking medications), studies show that 80% of those who take the placebo feel the benefits of the drug.

Source: PSY Blog 2011

9.3 Types of Psychological Research

In psychology, there are three typical research types: descriptive, experimental, and observational.

Descriptive research 

Descriptive research means the study is based on empirical evidence, and applied to a hypothesis in an attempt to understand the scenario in question. Descriptive research also frequently leads to the development of theories that can explain these same empirical observations, which can be applied to future psychological studies.

Experimental research

Experimental research is a study that can function in one of two ways. The first is by deductive process, which is the act of experimenting based on a pre-determined hypothesis in an attempt to test its validity. The other is by using the inductive process, which is generally used to evaluate functional relationships. In other words, the deductive process starts with an idea and works towards trying to prove it - or top down - while the inductive process works from the bottom up, as it does not have a specific outcome in mind.

Observational research

The third type of research is that of observational. Observational research is a type of study where the data collected is done so by means of observing the behaviours of an individual or group. These studies generally employ a participant or non-participant role, which will be explored later on in this module when discussing specific methodologies of psychological research.

9.4 Research Methods in Psychological Research

Within the three types of psychological research noted above, are several methodologies that are used to conduct the research. These include case studies, content analysis, correlation, field experiments, lab experiments, observations, pilot studies, and surveys.

Case study

A case study is a type of descriptive research that aims to explain a behaviour, event, or other phenomenon. It is viewed as an intensive form of analysis and usually looks at an individual or a group of individuals as the study subject. A case study collects information about its topic to develop a case, or platform to base a theory, opinion, or to explain a scenario.

Content analysis

Content analysis is a similar type of research methodology. It can also be considered as a form of indirect observation - which will be touched on later in this subsection. Using keywords, or coding, content analysis works by pulling information related to the context of the research topic from various forms of media, such as websites, documents, film, etc. An analysis is then performed to show the relationship and meaning behind the identified keywords.

Correlation

Another research method is correlation, which studies the relationships between two variables, such as two different behaviours, for example.

There are three types of correlations:

Positive - A direct relationship between two variables i.e., when the value of one variable increases, the value of the other increases too. For example, an increase in revision is accompanied by an increase in examination performance.

Negative - An inverse relationship between two variables, meaning that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other decreases. An example would be height above sea level and temperature. As you climb the mountain (increase in height) it gets colder (decrease in temperature).

Zero - When there is no relationship between two variables. For example there is no relationship between the amount of tea drunk and level of intelligence.

Field and lab experiments

Two related forms of research methodologies are field and lab experiments. Field experiments are one of the most easily recognised forms of psychological research. These experiments are conducted outside of a laboratory. However, it employs a lab-type methodology, but in a real-life environment. The situation is manipulated, but participants behave as they normally would.

Lab experiments, on the other hand, are performed in a controlled environment. This does not mean the experiment takes place in a traditional lab setting, but that all aspects of the environment are controlled. This is also often referred to as controlled observation.

Observations

Observational methodologies enable a researcher to view a particular situation or behaviour in order to better understand the causes of it, and how it takes place.

There are four types of observation:

Participant observation - a researcher has direct contact with the study group by joining in the activity being observed, and with the group's knowledge. 

Non-participant observation - a form of observation where the research has no direct contact with the study group; this can be conducted with or without the group's knowledge

Covert observation - the observation of a group through direct participation, but without the group knowing the researcher's position; this has ethical implications related to the deceptive nature of this form of research

Naturalistic observation - a type of observation where the researcher looks at a specific behaviour when in the natural environment of the study group or subject

Pilot study

A pilot study is a form of research that can be viewed as a trial run of a much larger study. The pilot aspect of a study related to the initial phase, or run, of the steps involved in the desired research. This helps to sift through any potential ambiguities, challenges, or confusion that might arise in the wider study.

There are two outcomes of a pilot study:

Floor effect - when the participants are unable to complete the tasks of the study, either partially or in full

Ceiling effect - when the participants are easily able to perform all the tasks without any challenge or difficulty

While the latter may seem like the better of the two, the goal is to have a balance between the two, so that varying outcomes can occur.

Survey

The final methodology is surveys. These are question and answer-based forms of research, and are generally conducted in one of two

ways: interviews and questionnaires.

Interviews are conversations between a researcher and a participant, where the researcher asks questions and the participant responds. There are two forms of interviews: unstructured, or informal interviews (a more casual conversation without a pre-set list of questions, but with a general topic in mind, resulting in qualitative data) and structured, or formal interviews (the interviewer asks specific, pre-set questions, and the participant must respond solely within the theme of the conversation, without room to deviate to other topics).

Questionnaires can either have open-ended (a question that does not have a specific answer in mind) or structured questions (questions that must be one of a selection of choices, such as 'yes' or 'no'). There are different forms of questionnaires, such as telephone surveys, mail-in (self-reporting), and even face-to-face surveys.

Activity 1: Observation know-how

Estimated time: 10 minutes

You have been tasked with an Observational research project with the aim of understanding the behaviours of university students and meal hall food consumption. The research question is looking at the correlation between eating habits, stress, and the buffet-style food options available to first year university students. Observing this scenario can be done in many ways, but to gain better access to the student's mind- set and be able to interact with them, you must carefully consider your options.

Do you:

a) Observe from afar hoping you will learn enough without having to talk or interact with any one

b) Approach the research by engaging with the students by doing without letting them know you are

not a first-year student

OR

c) Go all in and immerse yourself with the students, enjoy the food, and talk to them openly about your research?

Once you have decided on your method, take a few minutes to reflect on how this will impact the outcome of your research by answering the following questions:

Why did you choose this method?

What do you think will be the biggest challenges of gaining the trust and engagement of the students?

Regardless of the method you selected, do you think telling the students they are being researched would change their responses and/or behaviours?

Is there another way to gain the same data without conducting observational methods?

If so, what would it be?

If not, why do you feel observation is the only methodology for this scenario?

9.5 Research Ethics

One of the most important considerations before, during and after conducting a research study is that of the ethical implications. There are times when the research topic may be of a risqué or sensitive nature. The purpose of research ethics is to provide the participants of the study with some level of protection.

Research ethics, more specifically, refers to a pre-determined set of rules and conduct that are required to be followed throughout any time of research that involves the participation of others. There is a moral obligation to reduce the amount of harm that could βind its way to a participant, if it cannot be eliminated in full.

Deciding whether or not research ethics are justified is usually a case of one's judgement. However, a general rule of thumb is to carefully consider the benefits of these ethical best practices. Research ethics are regarded with such esteem, that there are recognised codes of conduct offered by two of the most recognised psychological societies in the world. The British Psychological Society and the American Psychological Association have both published ethical guidelines for conducting research in this field.

Both indicate that the true purpose of these guidelines serves three functions -the protection of research participants, the psychological researchers, and the overall reputation of psychology, itself. Research ethics require several actions and components in order to fully cover the participants and conduct a thorough and meaningful study. These aspects of research ethics include, informed consent, debriefing the participant, protecting the participant, deceiving the participant, the matter of confidentiality, and participant withdrawal. Each of these will be looked at in more detail below.

Informed consent

It is of the utmost importance that the participant is aware of their inclusion in a research study. There are, of course, various ways to get around this so that knowledge of the intent of the study is not spoiled by bias. It is for this reason that it is important to gain the consent of any and all participants prior to the start of their role in the research.

Informed consent is not as easy as simply having them agree by saying “Yes” to the invitation to participate; they need to fully understand what is being asked of them. This involves a process whereby the researcher must explain the components of the study to the potential participant and provide them with specific information. This includes a summary explaining the purpose of the research; reassurance that participation is voluntary and no consequences will result from withdrawing from the study (to be discussed later in this section); an outline of any foreseeable risks that arise as a result of participation, if any exist, such as personal or psychological harm and any procedures involved in the study; the length of time the participant is required to commit to the study; the benefits to society that could occur from the research outcomes; contact information for the person a participant can communicate with to answer any questions they may have, report injuries, or to withdraw from the study.

If a participant is within the age of consent - usually 18 years and older - then they can sign the consent form. If the participant is younger than the legal age of consent, then they require the permission of a parent or legal guardian. Additionally, participants considered to be especially vulnerable - mentally challenged, or who lack the full capacity to understand what is being asked of them - should be removed from the study pool, unless there is a need for their participation, such as researching a particular topic that affects this demographic, specifically.

It is only then, that the participant has been informed, and can then offer their consent. At this point, consent must be obtained in a formal way. A consent form is the most logical way of doing so. This provides a space for the participant to formally sign, thereby agreeing to participate in the study. Any information provided in writing to the participant at this time should be written using basic terminology, free from jargon, as well as the contact information noted above.

Fact

Children are not allowed to be asked about topics such as family life, sex, or religion without permission of their parent or guardian under the Education Act of 1994 (US)

Source: American Psychological Association 2003

Debriefing the participant

When the data collection period of the research has finished, it is important to provide the participant with the opportunity to discuss what has happened. This is referred to as debriefing the participant, or a debriefing session. The purpose of a debriefing session is to provide the participant with a set time to ask questions, share information about their experiences while participating, and to learn a bit more about the procedure and findings of the study.

The psychologist leading the research is generally the person who conducts these sessions. It is also at this time that the researcher will once again reiterate the purpose of the study and why it was necessary to have the participant involved. These sessions work best when they are conducted soon after completion of the study. The debriefing session is also the time when the participant should be informed if any deception has taken place in terms of their involvement in the study. This aspect of research ethics will be looked at shortly.

Protecting the participant

It is important to always keep in mind, that the safety and wellbeing of all participants is fundamental to the study. This was, after all, promised as part of the informed consent. This must be reiterated throughout the research process. Protecting participants means that no harm shall befall them - including any physical or psychological distress. Additionally, a participant should not be shamed, frightened, embarrassed or offended in any way, at any point throughout the study. Risk, in general, should be minimised, if it must be present at all, and any risk that is associated with the study should not be any more than the participant would experience within the course of their everyday lives.

In the case of participants being from vulnerable groups, as was noted in the previous subsection, it is crucial that they receive more than just the usual standard of care. Other examples of vulnerable participants include the elderly and minors. Finally, it is important that researchers are honest with participants at all times, when it comes to the potential risk of their involvement. If any unforeseeable negative outcomes are to surface, the psychologist must provide additional therapeutic debriefing, to ensure their undue stress is attended to.

Deceiving the participant

It has already been mentioned above on several occasions that providing the participant with an accurate summary of the scope of the study is an important part of conducting psychological research. However, if the research runs a risk of being biased by the participants' full disclosure to the study, there is one method that allows for this. This is referred to as deceiving the participant, and should only be used when appropriate, rather than as a best practice of psychological research. This should always be used as a last resort. Deceiving a participant happens when a participant is intentionally misled about the purpose of a research study.

There are two forms of deception in research:

Deliberate - manipulating the setup of the study, or providing them with misleading instructions

Omission - failure to, or intentionally withholding information about the study 

When a researcher undergoes deceitful participation, they still must ensure that no harm should come to the participant as a result. Participants should be informed as soon as possible of this  position and be given an honest reason for the need to employ the deceit. The researcher must also obtain informed consent once again, to ensure the participant is still agreeable to the terms of the research despite this new information. This means that the former consent form is invalidated because of the method of deception used within the study.

Again, the participant must receive a written statement about the true purpose of the study, which was mentioned in the previous subsection. Some researchers firmly believe that there is not acceptable reason that would justify deceiving a participant. This is because it violates a participant's rights to involve themselves in the study; it can have negative impacts on further studies, such as distrust in the psychological process; and it is a questionable practice, more generally, as a means of adding to the field. However, a study is considered fundamentally inappropriate, if the researcher believes a participant would object to participation upon learning the real purpose of the study. In other words, if there is any risk of not gaining the second informed consent, then there is no justification for proceeding with the study from the get go.

The matter of confidentiality

This topic has already been discussed to some degree. Part of ensuring the safety of the participant is granting them privacy, or confidentiality. This means that any information gained within the study cannot be shared with the participant's name attached, unless consent is given by the individual. Participants must remain anonymous at all times, especially in the written report. If a breach in confidentiality were to happen, the researcher must inform the participant immediately and provide them with a statement on how this breach will be rectified.

Researchers are also under no obligation, from a legal standpoint, to disclose any information related to criminal activity that may have been discovered within the study. The duty to report such acts is at the complete discretion of the researcher.

Participant withdrawal

The final component of research ethics to be discussed is the aspect of participation withdrawal. When the researcher obtains the informed consent, it must be disclosed that the participant is free to leave the study without any implications or penalties for doing so. This is an aspect of the study that must be reiterated to the participant, so they do not feel they are unable to leave the study in the event they are no longer interested, or comfortable in doing so. If the participant has been offered compensation of any kind for their participation, this reimbursement cannot be revoked.

9.6 Analysis and Interpretation

After the data collection has been completed, it is time to analyse and interpret the information gathered throughout the study. This is the process by which the study transitions from collection to reporting, and is, perhaps, one of the most important stages of psychological research. In other words, this is where the meaning of a study is truly found.

Data analysis

Data analysis is a process of reviewing the data collected and beginning to place it into categories. This is the preliminary stage before reports and research papers are written, which generally cover the statistical information retrieved from the data. Within data analysis there are different stages. These stages are known as inspection, cleansing, transforming, and modelling.

Inspecting the data is also commonly known as data processing. This is the process where the data is organised, such as placing the information into a spreadsheet, or transcribing interviews into a document with coding. Cleansing the data seeks to remove any duplicate data entries, and find any incomplete information.

Data transformation converts the data collected from one format to another, such as combining various datasets into one document or file. Data modelling is the final step of analysis before the interpretation processes begin. This refers to the process of placing the data into useful algorithms that can be easily accessed at a later date; such as finding all the data on a specific day, time, or participant throughout the collection phase.

Data interpretation

In the interpretive stage of data collection, the researcher begins to draw conclusions and pull important information from the data set. Data interpretation is a process that allows numerical data, derived from quantitative methods, to be easily read, so that the researcher can identify the key points that either prove or dispel the hypothesis of the study, or provide a solid position on an inductive research project.

Data interpretation of qualitative, or anecdotal, research can be done in a similar way, except that it does not usually contain numerical data that can be transformed into statistics. Instead, it uses a set of data codes to pinpoint similar findings throughout all of the data. Regardless of the type of research conducted (qualitative or quantitative) it is possible to determine the implications of the findings within this process of interpretation. Once this has been completed, the research can then begin the process of putting these findings into words.

The reporting that comes from this process can be turned into any number of documents, such as academic journal articles, research expansion grants, and even textbooks for future psychological education.

9.7 High Profile Examples of Psychological Research

There are many high profile studies that are known for their bizarref nature, or the intensity of the results. Some of these cases will be explored below, including the Stanford prison study, the case of David Reimer, and Genie the feral child.

Stanford Prison study

The Stanford prison study is one of the most infamous cases of psychological research. Under the supervision of Philip Zimbardo (see Module 2), this research was conducted from August 14-20, 1971. The study was cut short, however, due to the intensity of the experiment, which resulted in excessive violence and psychological torture.

The aim of the study was to better understand the theory of group think and the power of authority; namely the relationship between prisoner and guard. The subjects who assumed the roles of either guards or prisoners were made up of university students who voluntarily participated.

Prior to the start of the study, the twelve (of twenty-four) students selected to play the role of the guard met with Zimbardo and his team. They were given specific instructions of what was acceptable behaviour and what was not. This included strict directions not to withhold food or drinks from the prisoners and that any physical violence would not be tolerated. The students taking on the role of prisoners were arrested by local police and picked up from their homes on the first day of the study before entering the jail.

It took 36 hours before the βirst prisoner showed signs of discomfort and depression, and from there the situation escalated. Prisoners were subjected to physical torture in the form of excessive exercise, and unsanitary conditions, amongst other things. Yet, it was not until one of Zimbardo's assistants called out the questionable nature of the direction the study was quickly headed. This resulted in a scheduled two-week study lasting only six days.

David Reimer

The story of David Reimer made headlines in the late 1990s following a flood of media attention and following his suicide in 2004. This case has had an incredible influence on gender identity and gender transition. Reimer was a Canadian born as a male, but raised as a girl following a botched circumcision. The decision to raise Reimer as a female by his parents was the result of advice given by a psychologist at

John Hopkins Hospital.

John Money, the psychologist, was a prominent researcher in the field of gender identity; particularly intersex children. As a result, Money convinced Reimer's parents to place the young boy under the knife once again - only this time for sex reassignment surgery at just 22 months. This opened the door for a new experiment under Money's supervision using Reimer's brother as the control group.

Several unethical implications were made against Money, including sexual acts by Reimer's brother at the instruction of Money. Money indicated this was necessary for the reassignment process, stating that acting out certain sexual scenarios was a healthy activity. Money kept photographs of these sessions, and other forms of records throughout the years following the initial surgery to maintain documentation of Reimer's progress.

When Reimer reached his teen years, he began to realise that something was off. He began to question his identity, which led to his parents relaying the truth about his true sex a few years later. He offcially began the transition back to being male at the age of 15 years later, he married, adopted three children, but eventually ended his life at the age of 38. Reimer had struggled with depression and other psychological challenges throughout his life. These challenges were linked to the experimentation and associated struggles related to his attempted sex reassignment surgery.

Money had documented the experiment as a success, even though Reimer made the transition back to being male at 15. It was not until after his death that the study was deemed inappropriate and has since been used in psychology classrooms as an example of research gone wrong.

Genie the feral child

The case of Genie is one that has been widely reported as being one of the most fascinating research studies in the field of psychology. Genie spent her formative years as a child in an abusive home in California. Her father resented her, stating he believed that she was mentally challenged. She was kept in isolation beginning at the age of 20 months until she was nearly 14. During this time, she was typically tied to a chair so that she was unable to move her limbs and severely malnourished. This isolation meant her motor, linguistic and general developmental skills were significantly underdeveloped.

Genie was taken into custody of California's child welfare authorities in 1970, at the age of 13. At the time she was removed from her childhood home, she had to undergo numerous psychological tests to understand her level of development and any harm that may have been caused by her unusual upbringing. This led to a more academic interest, which saw countless research dollars being placed on the more formalised study. These tests and observations continued until she was 21 years old. The formal studies focused on brain functions and her ability to gain the basic skills she would have learned as a child. The current whereabouts of Genie is uncertain, although it is believed she remains under supervision in a care facility in California.

Activity 2: Case Study Analysis

Estimated time: 15 minutes

Have a look at one of the case studies noted above. Spend a few minutes researching further into the case you have selected to gain a better understanding of the study. When you feel you have gained a better grasp of the purpose, conduct and outcomes of the study, answer the following questions. What went wrong within the experiment? Why do you think it went that way? Given what you have learned about research ethics, what violations were in effect? How does informed consent play into this case? Do you feel there was justification for the experiment given what you know about the post- experiment struggles of the participant(s) and the learning outcomes achieved following the conclusion of the studies?

MODULE SUMMARY

This module looked at the various aspects of psychological research. It began by providing a working definition of psychological research, which named descriptive, experimental, and observational forms as the three types of research used. This led to a section on the methodologies used to undergo psychological research, including case studies, content analysis, correlation, field and lab experiments, four types of observation (participant, non-participant, covert, and naturalistic), pilot studies and surveys (namely interviews and questionnaires).

The various steps involved in research ethics were also outlined and were noted as informed consent, debriefing the participant, protecting the participant, deceiving the participant, confidentially, and withdrawing from the study. A section on data analysis and interpretation broke down and described how this is useful post-data collection. Analysis was noted as having four steps - inspection, cleansing, transforming and modelling.

Finally, the module ended with a look at three high-proβile examples of psychological research. These included the Stanford prison study, the story of David Reimer, and Genie the feral child. Each of these case studies showed the importance of ethical practices, and how difficult it can be to conduct sound research without negative consequences. Upon the completion of this module, a foundational understanding of research practices should be known, as should the forms of research methodologies used within psychological research.