7.1 Introduction
The previous modules have been focused at providing a foundational knowledge of psychology and βive branches of this βield of study, however, this module will break away from that pattern and begin to explore other aspects of psychology. In each of the descriptions of psychologies, it was noted that there were different views, theories and applications. These variances help to determine the ways in which humans are both similar and different from each other.
This module will look at several different areas of human behaviour and how individual variations are manifested. This will be demonstrated by exploring three different areas: personality, intelligence and mental disorders.
7.2 Differences in Personalities
Many of the concepts included within the module are complex in nature; personality is no exception. Personality is defined as the individual differences in patterns of thought, feeling and behaviour. It focuses on both the individual differences in personality characteristics, as well as how these same individual characteristics work in conjunction with each other. This section will be broken down into four sub-sections: personality theories, gender differences and regional differences and differences between siblings.
Personality theories
There are endless theories when it comes to identifying personality traits and the hows and whys behind them. One of these theories is Allport's trait theory, which was covered briefly in Module 2. However, there are three other theories which are popular theories about personality. These include tripartite theory of personality, Eysenck's personality theory and Cattle's 16PF trait theory. All three of these will be examined below.
Sigmund Freud, as was noted in the first module, is one of the most influential psychologists in the discipline's history. This is especially true when it comes to understanding personality. Proof of this influence can be seen in his many influential works, including the development of the tripartite theory of personality.
The tripartite theory of personality
The tripartite theory of personality arose from the way in which Freud viewed personality Freud saw this as happening in three parts - the id, ego and superego: The id explained the biological, or inherited, traits that related to personality. These are the personality traits that have been passed on from one or both parents. The ego is a realistic application of the process by which an individual tries to satisfy the needs
of the id.
The superego, which is also known as the psyche, is the incorporation of the values and/or morals of a society that are learned from an influential other. This could be a parent, guardian, teacher, coach, or other leadership role within a child's life.
Fact
Personalities may differ from person to person, but they remain the same throughout most of one's lifetime
Source: Very Well 2017
Eysenck's personality theory
Eysenck's personality theory is the next to be outlined. This theory is based on the responses of a questionnaire based study orchestrated by Hans Eysenck. The study analysed these responses which determined three dimensions of personality: extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism. Each of these dimensions uses a scale to rate the extent to which a person falls under a particular personality category.
When it comes to extraversion, the scale places it on one side, while introversion is on the opposing end. A person that is viewed as an extravert is usually seen as being overly social, impulsive and even the need to seek excitement. Introverts, on the other hand, are more reserved, serious and controlled individuals.
Neuroticism scales between stability and instability. Instability is viewed as being neurotic and is characterised by traits, such as anxious, overly emotional, moody, always worried and difficult to calm once they have become upset. Opposing these behaviours, a stable person is seemingly unreactive, unemotional, and does not show signs of worry.
Psychoticism does not necessarily have a scale. It is not compared, usually, with something of opposed effect. It is alternatively scaled by the degree to which an individual relates, moving from bad to worst. Characteristics of a psychotic personality include an inhibited ability to show empathy, they tend to be aggressive and get into trouble more often. They are usually loners, as well and perform acts that are viewed as cruel.
Cattell's 16PF trait theory
The final trait theory is Cattell's 16PF, which was designed by Raymond Cattell. The 'PF” stands for personality factors and is one of the components behind this theory. As a whole, Cattell's theory opposes the work of Eysenck. This is because Cattell believed it was more important to look at a wide range of traits, rather than just a few. The rationale behind this belief was that the results would be more likely to provide a more complete picture of the subject's personality.
To conduct the research that would shape his theory, Cattell began to collect data about the traits of people by employing three methods: L-data, Q-data and T-data:
-L-data focused on obtaining information about a person through their life record. This is achieved by collecting documents related to their grades, work performance and other behavioural aspects of an individual's life.
-Q-data, on the other hand, provided Cattell with data through the use of questionnaires. These questionnaires required participants to rate their own personalities.
-T-data. Finally, data collected from objective testing methods is what is known as T-data.
These tests were designed to tap into an individual's personality, as a means of determining the traits that influence their behaviours. It was through all this research that Cattell could identify 16 of the most frequently observed personality traits. In other words, these traits are the most likely to be manifested in the majority of people.
Activity 1: Personality test
Estimated time: 15 minutes
Take a personality test online. There is no need to purchase your test results as there are numerous free tests available.
Complete the test and obtain your results. Spend a few minutes considering the outcome and then reflect on the following questions:
What were the main points highlighted in your personality results?
Do you feel this was an accurate representation of yourself?
Was there anything that surprised you?
Was there anything you felt was obvious?
How do you think knowing this information will impact on how you behave going forward (will you be more self-conscious, disregard the findings, etc.)?
Do you think the test was helpful?
How can these tests be used to treat people with personality disorders?
Would you recommend taking a test to a friend or family member?
7.3 Gender Differences in Personality
There are always assumptions and opinions about the differences and similarities between males and females. When it comes to personality these comparisons are not unfamiliar either. In fact, there have been several studies that have been dedicated to finding out if there is any basis for these opinions. This subsection will look at two.
The first was a study conducted by three gentlemen - Paul Costa, Robert McCrae and Antonio Terracciano. They began their research in 2001, which consisted of a study populous of 23000 people, coming from 26 different cultural backgrounds. By participating in this study, respondents were tasked with rating their personalities using a questionnaire-style method. This method of employment created a wealth of critique when the study was finally published in 2008, as the responses showed gender stereotypes.
While it was possible for the respondents to provide truthful answers, many critics argued there was a greater potential for these same individuals to have provided biased answers based on how they might have perceived society to rate them as. This is perhaps why so many other like-studies have been conducted.
The second study involved only 10,000 people. Conducted by Marco Del Giudice in 2012, this study into gender differences in personality showed similar but different results. The outcomes of Del Giudice's research accounted for a 10% response overlap between men and women. However, women showed higher scores when it came to traits such as apprehension, sensitivity and warmth. Dominance, emotional stability, rule-consciousness and vigilance, interestingly were traits that men scored higher for.
These two studies show virtually similar results, although the latter seems to be taken more seriously - perhaps because it was not conducted by using a self-reporting system. However, the test group in Del Giudice's research was significantly less than that of the 2001 study by Costa, McCrae and Terracciano. Either way, it does show a difference between personality traits of men and women, although this is not to suggest that they cannot exist for the opposing gender.
7.4 Regional Differences in Personality
With factors related to economics, health, political and social indicators differing from one region to the next, it is no wonder someone thought to look at the correlation between geographical region and personality traits. But it is not just 'someone' that conducted such studies; in fact, numerous studies have taken place over the last ten years, all with the purpose of determining if personality was influenced by geography.
A study within the UK in 2015 and several in the US (2008, 2009, and 2013) all researched regional differences related to personality. This was a logical step, given that many of the indicators noted above have been identified as playing a role in the development of one's personality.
The outcomes of these studies showed that there were noticeable differences from region to region in terms of variations in personality.
For the study conducted in the UK, the results of the study indicated that people who displayed more conscientious personalities were more likely to vote for conservative political representation,fwhereas those most likely to vote liberal were individuals who identified as being more open to new experiences. In the case of the US-based studies, higher conscientiousness was an indicator for lower life expectancy, while those who rated higher for neurotic traits, showed a higher instance in poorer health conditions than those who manifested more stable traits.
7.5 Differences in Personality Between Siblings
The final aspect of personality to be explored within this module is that of sibling personality differences. Within this context, there is a belief that the order in which an individual is born will have a direct impact on that person's personality. Of course, this is not a blanket formula, so it is possible that those born in a different order may display the same traits as those of a different order.
There is also a belief that the one of the reasons for these differences is the style of parenting, and how that changes from one child to the next. Interestingly, the order an individual is born does not seem to influence personality traits such as the degree of their agreeableness, emotional stability, imagination, intro or extraversion, or conscientiousness.
To explain the differences of birth order as it pertains to personality characteristics, it is important to look at the four main orders of child birth - first born, middle children, last born and only children. There are a few exceptions to this theory and they will be outlined as well. First born children are described as achievers that are cautious, reliable, structured, conscientious and controlling.
Those born in between the first and last children are usually people-pleasers with a rebellious streak. They are big on maintaining friendships and usually have large social circles. They are also typically the peacemaker of the family. Last born children can be attention-seeking, self-centred, outgoing and fun-loving. They are also described as being both manipulative and uncomplicated.
Only children show varying aspects of the former three. They tend to be perfectionists and both conscientious and diligent. Only children can also be identified as having personalities that display leadership qualities and actions that give them a level of maturity that may not be as easily recognised in children from multiple-child families.
Exceptions to the above rules on personality characteristics by birth order include:
Children who find themselves as part of a blended family - such as through divorce and remarriage
Families within families - twins are the best example of this, as they are born at the same time, so typical birth order characteristics do not seem to apply
Gap children - described as a child born at least βive years apart from the former youngest
Adoption - or more specifically the age of the adopted child at the time of the adoption in comparison with any children already a part of the adoptive family
In addition to all of this there are three differences that tend to manifest between siblings. These are intelligence, perfectionist self-presentation and risk-taking. Studies in this area have indicated that older siblings may shower higher levels of intelligence than their younger siblings. Perfectionist self- presentation is a behavioural trait related to the need to be perceived as perfect, or a tendency to hide their imperfections.
This is often linked to psychological distress and occurs more frequently in older siblings. Younger siblings, however, appear to be less focused on perfection and more likely to take risks. All of this research goes to show that there truly are differences in the personalities of siblings, even though they are related. This means that not all inheritable traits are passed on to both siblings.
7.6 Measuring Intelligence
Intelligence, in and out of the realm of psychology, is difficult to define. This is because there are so many different ways of looking at it and ways for it to be applied and measured. This section will seek to define intelligence, followed by identifying four types of intelligence tests, before concluding with a brief discussion on why measuring intelligence is important.
What is intelligence?
To define intelligence, it is first important to understand that doing so is a subjective exercise, since it has already been noted that its meaning can vary from one person to the next. Arriving at a definitive definition has been so challenging, that it has presented a decades-long divide within the scientific community.
Robert Sternberg believes that there are three fundamental components of intelligence. They are analytical, practical and creative capabilities, and are used by some to measure intelligence. The most popular definition, however, is to see intelligence as a generalised mental ability to learn new information by which one can manipulate their environment by applying this newfound knowledge. This popular account of intelligence also asserts that it relates to one's ability to reason and derive one's own abstract thoughts.
Other definitions include many of the aspects already indicated in the popular view, as well as the ability to evaluate and judge, comprehend complex ideas and learn quickly from new experiences. It is also sometimes believed that an ability to comprehend and maintain relationships is part of what makes someone intelligent or not.
Types of intelligence testing
There are many tests that are used to determine the intelligence of an individual, or group of individuals. The most notable is that of the IQ test, which will be outlined below. Aside from this popular test is that of 'g' testing, scholastic assessment tests and multiple intelligences. The intelligence quotient, more recognisably known as an IQ test, is the most accepted form of intelligence testing. It is based on a series of tests that assess an individual's ability to perform in one of five subjects. These subjects include logic, mathematics, spatial, memory and verbal assessments.
The IQ test is measured and evaluated using a bell curve method. This means that the average person will score within a certain range, or the area of the curve that peaks. The ends of the bell curve indicate those that score one either extreme - either highly intelligent, or unintelligent.
The G-test
The G-test is also known as the general intelligence test. This is rooted in an understanding that the concept of intelligence is nothing more than a single entity. The theory behind this test posits that the idea of the single entity shows that humans can perform common tasks, which correspond to a region of the brain. This region is identified as the lateral prefrontal cortex, and is believed to be the location of the single entity of intelligence, because it is the only part of the brain that sees blood flow when these tests are conducted. There is significant research that supports this belief, although it is often challenged due to the simplicity of the test.
Although associated with the United States, the scholastic assessment test - or the SAT - is a measure of intelligence that is administered in a group. This is different from other tests, as they usually happen one at a time. Regardless of this, the SAT is used to determine an individual's achievements rather than aptitude, which other intelligence tests seek to measure. This form of testing is sometimes criticised for not being a true measure of intelligence, although verbal and mathematical components are included which are also found with the IQ test.
The theory of multiple intelligences breaks down the idea of intelligence into eight key features, which are used to measure how an individual rates in comparisons to others. These eight features include components of the IQ test, such as logic, spatial ability and linguistics. They also measure inter- and intra-personal abilities, kinaesthetic, musical and naturalist aptitudes.
Why measure intelligence?
Understanding the how behind measuring intelligence is equally as important as the why. In most cases, however, the purpose of measuring intelligence is for the purpose of education, as well as clinical settings. Aiding in the wellbeing of children seems to be the main rationale for participating in these exercises.
For starters, children are the first to show signs of learning disabilities and behavioural problems. By having ways of measuring intelligence, it can be easier to determine if there is reason for concern related to a child's ability to learn or behave. Testing shows if a problem exists and the degree to which the difficulty is present. These tests also make it much easier to prescribe the needed support to both children and adults in terms of corrective support as it relates to these same areas of concern.
Activity 1: IQ Test
Estimated time: approximately one hour
Take an IQ test online. Just like the personality test, there are numerous free tests available. Do not pay for results. The time it will take you to complete this activity depends on how quickly you are able to complete the test itself.
Once you have finished the test, obtain your results. Have a look at the outcome and then answer the following questions based on the information you have received:
How did you rate on the bell curve?
Were there any sections, or types of questions, that challenged you more than others?
Were some easier than others?
If each question was given a time to complete, how do you think this affects your results?
Did you find this exercise useful?
If you could change the way the test is delivered, what would you do?
7.7 How Psychology Handles Mental Disorders
The rise in awareness of mental disorders is something that has emerged in recent years. As many of these deal with behavioural issues, it should not come as any great surprise that the field of psychology attempts to understand these disorders. This section will provide a quick definition of mental health along with some examples of mental disorder. This will be followed by a brief discussion on the process of diagnosis and the available treatments.
What is mental health?
Mental health is a field of study that looks at the mental wellbeing of an individual. It aims to ensure all humans live with a positive or healthy psychological state. Mental health can affect anyone, no matter their background, which makes it an important area of study. Unfortunately, the negative stigma that is often associated with mental health prevents many people from gaining the support they need and deserve. There are countless mental disorders - so many that it would be impossible to cover them in any detail within this module.
Some of the most common disorders for adults are:
Alcohol and/or substance abuse
Issues of anxiety
Panic and depression
Bipolar disorder
Eating disorders
Seasonally affected disorder (SAD)
Schizophrenia
In children, the most common disorders are those within the autism spectrum, attachment and separation anxiety, stuttering, Tourette's and a number of learning disabilities. Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD/ADD) and obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) are both common within adults and children.
Diagnosing mental disorders
The process of diagnosing a mental disorder is not an easy task. This is because there are not any definitive tests that will determine one mental disorder from another, in the way you can test for cancer, heart disease, or any other health-related issue with the medical knowledge to provide such processes. The lack of formalised testing means that diagnosis is subjective, and sometimes left to nothing more than luck that the physician you have been assigned has some prior knowledge.
With that in mind there are some advances in the field of mental disorder diagnosis. These employ genetics and neuroimaging as an aid in the diagnosis process. These aids do not fully diagnose a disorder, but rather, they help to guide the physician throughout the process of diagnosis.
Fact
In Britain, one fifth of sick days in the workplace are caused by anxiety and/or depression.
Source: Mental Health Foundation 2017
7.8 Treating mental disorders
Treating a mental disorder is much easier than having one diagnosed. Several treatments have been introduced that help those living with a disorder to cope with daily life. Some of these methods will be outlined below. These include assertive community treatment (ACT), group therapy, pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy and recreation therapy.
Assertive community treatment (ACT)
Assertive community treatment (ACT) is one of the more unique courses of treatment. This treatment type provides those with mental health issues with treatment, rehabilitation and support services so that they can live on their own. This is, simply put, individualised treatment at the community level.
Other services that are often provided alongside these basic services are individual and group therapies including substance abuse therapy, delivery of medication, crisis and hospital services and organised housing and transportation. Some ACT programs even offer family members skill-related education, so that they can better support the individual with the mental disorder.
Group therapy
Group therapy is a type of treatment that can take place in any setting, so long as there is a group of participants attending. It works by allowing individuals with similar disorders to come together and discuss a variety of topics, from the disorder itself, to how it affects themselves and/or their family members, and even related struggles they may face because of the disorder. An example of a successful form of group therapy is Alcoholics Anonymous.
Pharmacotherapy
The next treatment type is pharmacotherapy. This uses a prescribed medication to help eliminate or lessen the effects of the disorder. In doing so, the aim is to enable the patient to be better able to function and perform day-to-day tasks, while improving their quality of life. Consultation with a psychiatrist or trained medical professional is usually required before these medications will be prescribed.
When most people think of treatment for mental disorders or mental health-related issues, they often think of psychotherapy. This is a form of mental counselling which uses something called cognitive behaviour treatment (CBT) to aid the patient in achieving a normalised life. It uses a combination of cognitive and behavioural therapy methods to do so. The aim of psychotherapy is to help change the negative and unproductive thoughts of the patient to something more positive and healthy.
Recreation therapy
Finally, recreation therapy, also known as active therapy, uses various activities to treat an individual that has been diagnosed with a mental disorder. When a patient engages in certain organised activities, it can help to reduce the challenging aspects of the disorder, such as negativity or pain. Examples of recreational therapy include sports activities, or art.
MODULE SUMMARY
This module covered several topics while trying to explain how variations occur within a similar field. Three examples were used to do so: personality, intelligence and mental health. The first section on personality provided a definition before outlining the main theories that are used to understand how they differ from one person to the next. These theories were noted as Sigmund Freud's tripartite theory of personality, which used the id, ego and superego; Esyenck's personality theory, which involved ranges of extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism; and Cattell's 16PF theory, which was designed by conducting various L-, Q- and T-data to establish the differences that can occur in personality.
From there, examples of variations were provided through gender, regional and sibling personalities. Intelligence was then covered by first noting that defining this term remains a difficult task. Severaltests including IQ, 'g', SAT and multiple intelligences were described. This section concluded with a rationale for why measuring and testing intelligence is important. The module then concluded with the topic of mental disorders. Mental health was defined as healthy psychological wellbeing, and several examples of mental disorders in both adults and children were provided.
The challenge of diagnosing mental disorders was summarised, before numerous treatment options were considered. These treatments included assertive community treatment (ACT), group therapy, pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy and recreation therapy. Upon completion of this module, a general understanding of psychological variations should have been achieved. This can be demonstrated by the ability to provide examples of the concepts included within this module.
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