1.1 Introduction
Psychology is an interesting field which covers a wide range of topics; each with their own unique practical applications. This module serves as the introduction to this vast discipline, which will form a foundational knowledge for the following modules, which will cover several specific psychologies, research methods and psychology at work.
However, this module will introduce psychology as a whole, describe what a psychologist is and provide a brief outline of the βive psychologies to be covered in the following modules (social, cognitive, educational, biological and developmental). A basic historical outline will also be provided, as will a shortened list of founding fathers of psychology.
Fact
Psychologists have recognised over 400 types of phobias
Source: The Daily Mail 2001
1.2 What is Psychology?
The basic definition of psychology is the scientific study of the human brain and the influences that lead to how an individual thinks, feels and/or acts. It looks at all forms of behaviour, including those that are manifested in the conscious and unconscious states. Its overarching goal is to be able to positively contribute to society, in terms of understanding the link between the human brain and the behaviours of an individual or group of individuals.
As an academic field, there are endless research possibilities, which can be both narrowed and general in scope. It is also widely cross-referenced between related fields such as human development, health and the world of sports. It does this primarily by looking at the social behaviours and cognitive processes of humans in relation to these focus areas.
In a clinical application, psychological theories and concepts are used in the assessment and treatment of those suffering from any number of mental problems. It also aims to understand the underlying causes of human behaviour and their change over time. Psychology, on the whole, employs both objective and logical approaches to the observation, measurement and analysis of human behaviour. These observations are often supported by theories that indicate various interpretations, explanations and predictions about the ways in which an individual interacts with the world around them.
1.3 What do Psychologists Do?
The role of a psychologist is quite varied depending on the branch of psychology they are interested in. Psychology is the study of how humans think, act and feel, therefore it is the duty of a psychologist to do just that - explain the current and changing behaviours of an individual and/or group. In other words they apply the knowledge obtained from the theoretical part of psychology to a more practical one.
Psychologists typically take on one of three pathways - teaching, research or the practical application. Those who engage in the teaching aspect are usually found within the university setting and are more often than not linked to the research side of things. Researching psychologists would seek to better understand the relationships between behaviour and mental processes, or an individual and another, or a group. In terms of mental processes, a psychologist might look at the application of theories on attention, cognition, emotions, intelligence, motivation and personality, amongst others.
Psychologists within the clinical field offer a number of therapeutic services. They can be found in clinics, school settings (not just at the university level) and other forms of medical facilities. The potential roles of a psychologist will be covered in greater detail within the final module of this course.
1.4 The Main Branches of Psychology
There are numerous branches of psychology; each with their own specialisation in terms of how they explain or understand human behaviour. While it would be impossible to cover them all within this course, five of the most predominant forms will be explored throughout. This section will brieβly outline social, cognitive, educational, biological and developmental psychology.
Social psychology
Social psychology is the branch that looks at how an individual interacts within their social environment or society. Just like in psychology as a broader topic, the social discipline seeks to understand how an individual behaves in terms of their thoughts, actions and feelings in relation to society or group settings. Social psychology is both a practical and research driven field.
Some of the biggest contributions to social psychology have been:
Social identity theory - how one views themselves in relation to others
Drive theory - the behavioural motivations of an individual when in a group setting
Attribution theory - how one justifies or understands the behaviour of others Social psychology will be explained in further detail in Module 2.
Cognitive psychology
The study of how one's mind processes information is known as cognitive psychology. Within this branch of psychology, the brain is often compared to a computer processing program, as they work in much the same way. Cognitive psychology is mainly a research-based form of psychology.
Within the field of cognitive psychology, while it will be the focus of Module 3, there have been many discoveries that have helped to explain how one processes new information. Some of the processes covered in cognitive psychology are language, memory, problem-solving and reasoning, and concept formation. Each of these look at a specific method of processing and/or recalling information, which influence the behaviour of an individual or group.
Educational psychology
Educational psychology looks at the learning stages of humans of all ages. It is frequently confused with developmental psychology or believed to only concern those in the childhood and adolescence stages of life. It looks specifically at the cognitive and behavioural characteristics of learning and the processes that best suit specific learning outcomes or challenges.
Although a more academic component is necessary in this field of psychology, it tends to be more of a practical application, with many educational psychologies working within an education system. There are four perspectives of educational psychology; the cognitive, constructivist, developmental and behavioural perspectives. Each of these highlights a different way of understanding how people learn. A more in-depth look at educational psychology will be the basis of Module 4.
Biological psychology
The fourth branch of psychology to be covered within this course is that of biological psychology. This form of psychology will be the focus of Module 5 and is often defined as the application of biological terms to the field of psychology as a means of understanding human behaviour. Biological psychology is a research-based study, the outcomes of which are then later applied on a practical level.
There are five key features of biological psychology, all of which help to shape the understanding of human behaviour in biological terms. These features are recognised as adaptation, natural selection and evolution, heredity, reductionism and socio-biology. Concepts of monism and dualism are also used within this discipline to help understand how the mind and body work in relation to each other.
Developmental psychology
Developmental psychology looks at the changes in human behaviour over the course of a lifetime. Focused predominantly in the realm of research, developmental psychology uses life stages to explain human behaviour and how an individual interprets the world around them as they grow. Attachment theory and ecological systems theory are used to explain human behaviour at various points in an individual's life. But, this form of psychology also uses several different life stages to explain these behaviours as well.
These life stages include:
The life stages of developmental psychology - considers all aspects of life from in-uteri to death
The life stages of moral development - focused on how an individual develops a sense of right and wrong
The life stages of psychosocial development - consists of eight different life stages and the desirable traits acquired at each
Module 6 will explore the topic of developmental psychology in greater detail.
Activity 1: Psychological Branch Library
Estimate time: 20 minutes
So far five branches of psychology have been introduced and will be looked at in greater detail in the coming modules. In this activity, you must spend a few minutes looking at other types of psychologies.
Once you have three to five other branches, reflect on the following questions.
How easy was it to identify additional psychologies?
What do they entail?
Were there any that you found that were linked to one of the five already acknowledged within this module? If so, how?
Were the additional branches clinical or academic in nature?
What are the practical applications of each?
How do they help to shape the overall understanding of human behaviour?
Were there any other perspectives that these psychologies offered?
1.5 A Brief History of Psychology
The history of psychology is one that is ever-changing and quite interesting. Module 8 will explore some of the more fascinating points of the discipline's history, along with highlighting how the practice has changed over time. This section, however, will look at the history of psychology in terms of its initial development, rather than how specific concepts and theories came to be. This will be achieved by outlining four aspects of psychological history: the early years, the formalisation of psychology, psychology in the UK and modern psychology.
The early years
The beginnings of psychology are rooted in philosophy. Starting with Ancient Egypt, the Greeks and Romans, philosophers at this time have been shown to question the idea of the mind and the motives that make a person act. Plato and Aristotle are the most notable Greek philosophers quoted and linked to the development of this sort of thinking. Both will be mentioned on several occasions throughout the following modules. It is also of value to note that the earliest stages of psychology were often referred to as a form of study that seeks to understand the soul. This, of course, falls under the Christian way of thinking, as opposed to the line of postulation that was established under Greek philosophical terms.
The formalisation of psychology
The term “psychology” was coined and first used in 1590, although it did not gain mainstream usage and attention until many years later, in 1732. This, however, does not mean that the formal forms of psychology were practiced at this point, but rather the concept of the thinking self was beginning to gain recognition.
The study of psychology as a discipline did not begin until 1879. This is when it was officially recognised as a scientific study, therefore gaining the funding and attraction needed to build the field to what it is today. This same inaugural study was conducted by German researcher, Wilhelm Wundt. He is best known for founding the first lab used solely for psychological research in Germany, and as the first man to categorise himself as a psychologist. Further information on Wundt will be provided in Module 3, which covers cognitive psychology. This period is best known as the development of experimental psychology.
Following the emergence of experimental psychology, naturally the field of applied psychology also began to develop. This led to the creation of educational theory and the application of psychology into several fields, such as the legal system and business in 1890. Sigmund Freud introduced psychoanalysis in 1896 and the beginning of mental testing was initiated throughout this same decade.
Fact
The levels of anxiety faced by a psychiatric patient in the 1950s is comparable to that of a high school student at present.
Source: Psychology Today 2008
Psychology in the UK
The British were much slower to catch on to the βield of psychology than most of Europe and the
United States. However, this does not mean that there is not a significant history at all. In 1876, the first psychology journal was published in the UK. Mind was founded by Alexander Bain and edited by George Croom Robertson. The publication focused on various aspects of psychology, including experimental psychology and the challenge it presented to the former idea of mental philosophy. Despite its British origins it was filled with articles written almost exclusively by American researchers.
Nearly ten years later, in 1884, a researcher by the name of Francis Galton opened the first anthropometric laboratory. Here individuals were tested on a number of attributes - both physical and perceptual. This was followed by an introduction of a psychology department and lectureship at the University of Cambridge in 1897.
In the early 1900s two significant things happened in terms of British contributions to the history of psychology. First, the British Psychological Society was founded in 1901, although initially as the Psychological Society until it changed its name five years later. Secondly, James Ward and W.H.R. Rivers co-founded the British Journal of Psychology in 1904. Both contributions have enabled the field of psychology to grow and reach wider audiences.
Modern psychology
Following the early 20th century contributions, modern psychology has also presented numerous findings and the emergence of new theories, concepts and even branches of psychology. Many of these will be covered in the following modules, when discussing the more specific topics of psychological disciplines.
1.5 The Founders of Psychology
The foundation of psychology has been described, as have several of the branches of this field, but, there are many individuals that have helped to give psychology the name it has earned over the years. These individuals have contributed to the development of psychology in ways that have helped to shape and broaden its scope, while paving a way for future research. Throughout the following modules other important psychologists will be introduced. Below are just a few of the founding contributors of the discipline, including Sir William Hamilton, Sir Francis Galton, Ivan Pavlov, Sigmund Freud, and Charles Spearman.
Sir William Hamilton
Sir William Hamilton (1788-1856) was a moral philosopher. While he did not practice psychology, per se, he was instrumental in changing the term mental philosophy to what it is known as today - psychology. Mental philosophy was the original study of the mind, however, it lacked the more scientific approach that psychology was able to give it.
Sir Francis Galton
Anthropometric lab practices were mentioned in the previous section. This is the result of Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911), who is best known for the development of tests that could provide information on the physical and perceptual traits of an individual or group of individuals. Galton was not a psychologist, even though his studies were closely tied to the practice. Yet, he had several other contributions to psychology aside from his work on anthropometrics. He is also recognised as being the first researcher to use a statistical method when conducting a study of human beings in terms of inheritance and intelligence.
From this work, Galton introduced new methods of obtaining data in the research setting. These are now known as questionnaires and surveys. Galton was also the person to coin the term eugenics (a practice that seeks to improve the quality of the human population through genetics). He was also the first person to introduce and discuss the impacts of nature versus nurture.
Ivan Pavlov
The next contributor is Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Pavlov was a Russian researcher who had a primary interest in animal sciences, or more specifically the digestive glands of dogs. He is also known for his cross-over research which led to the application of psychology to both humans and animals. One of the most significant contributions to come from Pavlov in terms of psychology, was his work on classical conditioning, or the procedures that he developed to test this theory.
Classical conditioning is a set of processes that are learned by a living being (such as a human or animal). As dogs were in his primary focus of study, it made sense that he would look at how a biological stimulant could be paired with a previously neutral, or unimportant, one. An example of classic conditioning is a dog associating the sound of a bell to feeding time. This works much in the same way as a dog thinking the sound of a can being opened would mean he was about to be fed.
Sigmund Freud
Perhaps the most easily recognisable name in the field of psychology is none other than Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud is known for his over-the-top studies, most of which fell under the category of psychoanalysis. He is, in fact, the creator of this area of psychology, which is a method of psychotherapy, and claimed to be a neurologist first and a psychoanalyst second. He indicated that this practice was useful in treating symptoms and manifestations of psychopathology using conversation between a psychoanalyst and their patient.
Freud held beliefs about the mind and basic brain functions related to human behaviour, which stemmed from his own clinical observations. This led to assumptions based on interpretive methods and introspection. He also focused much of his research on trying to understand and resolve problems related to unconscious conflict and mental distress.
Charles Spearman
The contributions of Charles Spearman (1863-1945) will be the final note of this section. Spearman was a British psychologist that is best known for his use of statistics, as well as introducing the concept of factor analysis. Factor analysis is a method in statistics that is used to describe variables within a study in terms of those observed, unobserved, or linked to others. These variables are known as factors. He is also recognised for his contributions, because of the Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. The former theory was developed while he was researching a two-factor theory of intelligence, of which the study received publication in 1901.
Aside from this, Spearman felt that everyone is born with a certain degree of intelligence. He believed that intelligence could be narrowed down to a number, which would correlate to a specific skill, thus leading to an understanding of how skills or traits can influence each other, be it positively, negatively, or on a neutral basis.
Activity 2: Founding Father Library
Estimated time: 20 minutes
The people that have influenced the beginnings of psychology were identified as founding fathers. Of course, not all of these important contributors were included in this module, nor will they all be covered throughout the course. Take a few minutes to research additional contributors before answering the questions below. Hint: consider the psychologies you looked at in the first activity.
Who were the influencers you identified?
What were their contributions?
How did these new perspectives help to shape the wider discipline of psychology?
Do you think the discipline could have proceeded without this input?
Were there any female contributors?
Why do you think it is more difficult to identify female psychologists, especially in contemporary psychology?
Were there any team type contributors?
If so, was one team member more recognised for their discovery than the others?
Why do you think that was the case?
MODULE SUMMARY
Serving as the introduction to the course, this first module sought to provide a basic level of understanding on the topic of psychology. This included a definition of psychology, which was indicated as the study of the human brain and how an individual thinks, acts and feels, and a description of the difference between the academic and clinical applications of this field.
Understanding what a psychologist does followed the previous section by highlighting the three typical roles as being in the capacity of a teacher, researcher or practitioner. The main branches of psychology were discussed, the five to be covered in the following five modules were touched on. These included social, cognitive, educational, biological and development psychology. A brief history of psychology was provided and broken into four difference sections - the early years, the formalisation of psychology, psychology in the UK and modern psychology.
Finally, the founders of psychology were outlined along with a summary of their contributions. These significant psychologists were Sir William Hamilton, Sir Francis Galton, Ivan Pavlov, Sigmund Freud and Charles Spearman. The history and key contributors will continue to be expanded upon in the coming modules. However, upon completion of this module, one should have the level of knowledge required to
proceed with the remainder of the course.
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