Social Psychology

2.1 Introduction

Interacting with others is part of life. This can lead to positive and negative interactions, which may impact how a person feels about another or even how they will act themselves. Social psychology is the branch of this science that deals with these relationships and this module will focus on how it works and what it entails.

Starting with a detailed definition of social psychology, the module will provide a history of the practice, as well as acknowledging some of the key figures that have made it what it is today. It will conclude by discussing the main theories of social psychology and its strengths and limitations, before outlining how it is applied in the field.

2.2 What is Social Psychology?

Understanding how human beings interact with one another is one of the most fascinating aspects of life - particularly in scientific research. Social psychology provides the scientific explanation for how humans think, act and feel in relation to society. It covers these three sentiments in terms of how specific behaviours are influenced by society, regardless of whether the individual is in the presence of another individual or group of people. These influences may also be imagined or implied, based on the study of social psychology.

The dominant focus of social psychology is on the attitudes of people. Studies under this form of psychology are usually focused and detailed in their scope, rather than generalised. It looks mainly at social roles - or norms - conformity, objective management and the influence of nurture over nature. Attitudes, more specifically, are related to all types of situations, which result in the development of conformity, interpersonal attraction, social perception and even prejudice.

There are several assumptions made when applying social psychology. These include the assumption that all the behaviours of an individual happen within a social context, even if there is no one present. This means that the thought of potential or approaching social interactions can shape the behaviours of an individual before the interaction itself takes place.

The second assumption is that social interactions are the most dominant influence of an individual's behaviour, including their thought processes and emotional state. The actual application of social psychology in the field will be looked at later in the module.

Social psychologists, or those who practice this branch of psychology, use the science to explain certain human behaviours. These often include how social interaction alters or impacts that mental state of specific social situations.

Fact

A study released in 2016 by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem showed that participants from both Israel and France were 25-40% likely to guess the correct name of a random person. This shows that people rely on patterns to identify their interactions with the world (a common finding within social psychology), and that people really do look like their names!

Source: Hebrew University of Jerusalem 2016

2.3 How Does Social Psychology Differ from Other Disciplines?

Because of the aspects of social understanding as it pertains to human beings that comes with the study of social psychology, it is often confused with other, similar disciplines. These similar disciplines include sociology, anthropology and personality psychology.

Sociology

Sociology is perhaps the discipline most frequently confused with social psychology, because they both deal mainly with human behaviour and their social interactions. However, how they understand these interactions and the resulting behaviours is quite different. To start, as was noted above, social psychology is a focused study that looks at specific interactions and related behaviours.

Sociology, on the other hand, uses more broad techniques, meaning it tries to capture wider audiences, rather than looking to understand one specific, smaller group. It is interested in the institutions and cultures that make up a society. In other words, sociology is interested in society all together, whereas social psychology aims to understand how one individual βits within a given society.

Anthropology

Anthropology is the study of human culture, past and present. It looks at the components of human evolution in the social context. Anthropology differs from social psychology, because it is interested in understanding the traditions and systems of belief that exist within a society. Social psychology is more interested in the thought processes, feelings, and interactions between an individual and the society they live in, which is quite dissimilar from the anthropological view.

Personality psychology

This branch of psychology examines the individual traits, characteristics and thoughts of a person; which sounds like social psychology, but in fact is not. While social psychology focuses on actions, thoughts and feelings, these are examined in terms of how social environments and groups of people influence a singular being's behaviours within each social context.

2.4 The History of Social Psychology

The study of social psychology began long before it was officially documented. Aristotle and Plato were the first to postulate about how humans interacted with the world around them. The former believed that humans needed to be social creatures as a means of surviving together, whereas the latter believed the state - or society - had control over each individual, and that this control promoted a level of social responsibility. Despite these beliefs and postulations, neither the contributions of Aristotle, nor Plato are rarely thought of as the birth of social psychology.

Early days

The first textbook on the topic of social psychology was published in 1908, by William McDougall. The text, appropriately named 'An Introduction to Social Psychology' dealt with topics such as morality, character, religion and emotion. However, the earliest documented experiments within this field took place before the 1900s, as scientists began to document and measure human behaviour, including how these individuals thought and felt.

Around 1935, the study of social norms became the focus of many social psychologists. Social norms, being behavioural rules that are accepted within a given society, have been used to understand how individuals βit in within their social environments, as well as how behaviours are changed when these norms are challenged.

While social psychology was slowly making its way to a more mainstream study, it was not until the end of the Second World War, that it really began to gain some ground. Following the end of the Holocaust, researchers wanted to gain an understanding of how it was possible for Hitler to reach such a level of success that he could orchestrate the many known acts against mankind that have been documented throughout this time.

Key 20th century contributions

Aside from the studies related to the Holocaust and Hitler's influence during the war, and the development of social norms as a formal area of study, the twentieth century led to the introduction of other important contributions to the field of social psychology. These include the cognitive processes of human beings, and more specifically social cognition. 

The development of understanding cognitive processes was born out of the increasing interest in the study of attitudes. This has helped to develop a better understanding of what triggers certain attitudes in various social situations. Naturally, the desire to understand the social consciousness of an individual became a more focused discipline for social psychology researchers. This need to understand social consciousness is what has led to more recent discoveries within the discipline.

Recent history

At the turn of the century, the focus of social psychology began to turn more towards the influence of society on the health and happiness of an individual. Researchers began to look at the role of culture and evolution and the effect they had on behaviours and attitudes in the realm of societal interactions.

Another major contribution to social psychology within the twenty-first century is the development of the field of social neuroscience. This practice looks at the biological processes that impact behaviours within the social context, using an interdisciplinary approach. The most recent contributions to social psychology have been in relation to societies that have experienced and moved away from situations related to genocide. These contributions include, most notably, the creation of anti-violence programmes that are intended to help in the reconstruction processes following such an event.

Fact

The British Psychological Society established its Social Psychology Section in 1940.

Source: The British Psychological Society

2.5 Key Founders

The history of social psychology would not be possible without its founding figures. Ranging from philosophers to psychologists, the contributions of these individuals have helped to shape, not only the discipline, but a better understanding of how humans are influenced by their society. While there are many noteworthy founding fathers of the discipline, those noted within this section have provided some of the most significant contributions to the field of social psychology.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

The first founding father is Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831). In relation to social psychology, he is best known for introducing the concept that the development of the social mind was directly linked to society. Although a philosopher and not a social psychologist, this understanding has been noted as the foundation for later research in the development of the social psychology field.

The Allport Brothers

The only sibling duo on the list, Floyd Henry (1890-1979) and Gordon (1897-1967) Allport have both contributed to social psychology. Floyd Henry is thought of as the father of experimental social psychology. He is recognised heavily for helping to legitimize the field of social psychology within the broader topic of behavioural sciences. He is also credited with developing concept of social facilitation - the observation that people behave differently when they are alone versus when they are in the presence of others. Trait theory, on the other hand, was developed by Gordon. It is for this reason that he is often referred to as the trait psychologist.

Kurt Lewin

Not to be confused with Floyd Henry Allport's designation, Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) is known as the founder of social psychology. His research, particularly in the 1920-30s, focused on leadership and group dynamics, in terms of organisational behaviour. A study conducted by Review of General Psychology (2002) ranked him as the 18th most cited psychologist of the previous century.

Muzafer Sherif

Muzafer Sherif (1906-1988) is best known for his work within the field of conformity. His research in this area took place in 1936. However, he is also a notable contributor to the areas of social judgement theory and realistic conflict theory. He is also recognised as one of the founders of modern social psychology.

Solomon Asch

Polish social psychologist, Solomon Asch (1907-1996) also contributed to the field of conformity. He is best known for conducting lab studies related to conformity, but also impression formation and prestige suggestion. In the same 2002 study noted previously, Asch was ranked the 41st most cited psychologist.

Leon Festinger

Leon Festinger (1919-1989) studied under Lewin in the late 1930s. Between the time he graduated in 1941 and the 1960s, Festinger became an influencer in the field of social psychology. He is best known for developing the concept of cognitive dissonance - the notion that refers to the development of tensions that arise when two psychologically inconsistent ideologies are presented at the same time, and the processes that force an individual to reduce their focus of one.

Henri Tajfel

When it comes to social psychology, one of the most recognisable theories is that of social identity theory. While this theory will be described in the following section, it was Henri Tajfel (1919-1982) who coined the term and concept in 1971. This theory has had a significant impact on social psychology and is one of the reasons why Tajfel is thought of as an important contributor to this branch of psychology.

Albert Bandura

Albert Bandura (1925-2021) is believed to be one of the most influential psychologists in the history of psychology. This is especially significant, as he is one of few living psychologists that have contributed to the early development of the field of social psychology. His focus of study has surrounded the areas of social cognition and social learning.

Philip Zimbardo

In almost any introductory course on psychology, Philip Zimbardo (1933- ) is mentioned. Known for his 1973 prison study, Zimbardo easily - and arguably frighteningly - demonstrated conformity in action. This study will be explored further in Module 8; however, it is important to recognise him as a significant contributor to the field of social psychology.

Bernard Weiner

Finally, Bernard Weiner (1935- ) is the founder of attribution theory. In 1986, Weiner developed this concept, which will be discussed further in the following section on social psychological theories. It is for this contribution that Weiner is thought to be a key founder of social psychology.

2.6 Social Psychological Theories

There are many theories that are used to test and develop social psychology. Each theory looks at various aspects of human behaviour and is used to explain the many intricacies of everyday social life. Below is an explanation of some of these theories.

Attribution theory

Attribution theory is one of the best-known theories within social psychology. It is used to explain how an individual rationalises the behaviours of others. It uses two types of attributes to describe these behaviours - internal and external. Internal attributes are those that are intrinsic within a person. These include one's personality, abilities, or efforts.

External attributes are those that arise due to outside factors; often triggered by various situations. Common external attributes are the weather, other people, money, or pressure. Within Attribution theory, there is also something known as Fundamental Attribution Error. This

considers the potential for a margin of error when conducting research. The Fundamental Attribution Error occurs when either the influence of a situation is over- or underestimated.

Drive theory

Not just applied to social psychology, Drive theory seeks to understand what motivates specific behaviours within an individual when in the presence of a group of people. It posits that when surrounded by others, the individual will expert a typical response that is dependent on the context of a given situation. In other words, Drive theory is about meeting one's needs when in a social situation, and is also used as a means of learning social norms.

An example of Drive theory:

An individual is at a new-to-them restaurant and needs to use the restroom. They find it at the back of the restaurant. The next time they are in a new-to-them restaurant, they automatically search for the restroom at the back of the establishment, even if it is not found there. The first experience establishes a starting point for future ones.

Drive theory was introduced to social psychology in 1965 by Robert Zajonc. He used this theory to explain Social Facilitation - an aspect of social psychology introduced by the Allport brothers.

Motivation crowding theory

This theory is linked with Attribution theory. It suggests that extrinsic attributes undermine the internal motivations of an individual. 'Crowd' in this case does not refer to a group of people, but rather the act of blocking out certain responses.

For example:

Placing an incentive - particularly that of a financial one - for an action will motivate an individual to perform until the incentive is removed. Shopping at a store that offers loyalty rewards will draw in a customer base more consistently, but if the reward programme is discontinued, those same customers may not be as willing to shop there since the incentive has been removed.

Positioning theory

Positioning theory looks at conversation. It seeks to understand how an individual contributes to a group discussion and the motivations behind it. It is usually about situational recall or revisiting old memories.

An example of Positioning theory is a school reunion:

The group is discussing a time or event that had occurred while they attended the school. Each person is adding to the memory, sharing their own personal take. At the end of the conversation, the individuals disperse. The recollection of these contributions, create new versions of the same time or event based on how they perceive the information that made up the conversation.

Schemata theory

Although cognitive processes make up the content of module three, the Schemata theory is equally important in social psychology. It looks at the various “schemas” or representations which lead to a bias in one's memory or how they perceive certain situations. It suggests that experiences are organised within the brain and that this becomes the guideline for future encounters of a similar circumstance. It is about providing a mental framework - or context - for remembering, and learning from, an experience.

For example:

A professor reads a random paragraph and asks their students to recall the information found within that same paragraph. Without any context, it is difficult for the students to recite the information from the paragraph. However, when the professor announces the context of the paragraph before they begin to read, it enables the students to understand the topic of the information, allowing them to better recall the information read aloud.

Self-perception theory

There is a common understanding that when an individual tells a lie long enough, they will begin to believe the words they are saying. The self-perception theory explains this by noting that one's own behaviours help to shape, or understand, a feeling about a situation or action. In other words, the individual sees themselves in the same way they would someone else and uses that information to decide what is right or wrong, or whether or not they like what has been observed. When extrinsic self-perceptions are too heavily observed, or perceived, it leads to something known as the over-justification effect.

Self-verification theory

Humans are no stranger to the need to be accepted. Self-verification theory explains an individual's need to be understood by those they interact with. It posits that how they perceive themselves is how they want others to see them, as well. This need to have these perceptions acknowledged - or verified - is directly linked to one's need to be accepted.

A good example of Self-verification theory is that of a comedian:

They see themselves as funny, and therefore seek to make others laugh to confirm this assumption about themselves. If the audience does not laugh, this alters the comedian's assumption that they are funny. If the audience laughs, then it validates the comedian's assumption.

Social Comparison theory

The Social Comparison theory focuses on how an individual relates to another person by making comparisons. The theory suggests that people learn about themselves, what they are capable of and how they fit in, by looking at others as a means of building up their self-esteem. In other words, Social Comparison theory is about how an individual perceives theory value, or worth, in relation to another person or persons.

An example of this theory, is that of a newly graduated student entering the workforce:

All their colleagues have the same education background, but varying levels of practical experience. The recent grad has less experience, but the most recent education, and compares themselves to their colleagues as a means of building their self-confidence, or to make themselves feel like they fit in - even if that is not a matter of criteria for doing so.

Social Exchange theory

The next theory to be discussed is Social Exchange theory. This explores the rationalisation by an individual in terms of the benefits they will gain from another in exchange for the effort they put into the relationship or interaction. In other words, it uses a cost-benefit formula to identify whether the relationship is worthwhile to the individual doing the calculation.

For example:

If an individual believes they are putting more effort into the interaction than they are gaining from it, they may look for ways to remove themselves from the situation. This is especially true if other, more desirable options are made available. However, if the individual feels they are giving as much as they are receiving, then they are less likely to be tempted by other options, or look for ways out, more generally.

Social Identity theory

It looks at how people categorise others in comparison to themselves. This means an individual will observe themselves, or the group they identify with (the in-group), and use those observations to understand a different group (the out-group). If the two groups are dissimilar, the individual will focus on what sets them apart. This often leads to negative perceptions, which can lead to prejudices and stereotypes. However, it is important to note, that negative representations of the out-group are not always the outcome. This is especially true, if the individual perceives the out-group as superior to the in-group, or at the same level, but with varying characteristics.

An example of a negative representation:

An in-group that identifies as upper class, observing and making comparisons to an out-group that is of a lower class. The in-group would see themselves as more successful, or better off, than those involved in the out-group. A positive representation would take place between members of different sports teams. Although a football player and a rugby player may play different sports, they are able to identify as being similar in their own-right, even though they do not play the same game. One sport is not superior to the other, and both require physical exercise and team work to be successful.

Social Penetration theory

Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor put forth Social Penetration theory in 1973 as a means of understanding the close relationships between two people. It suggests that relationships begin out of a superficial motive but grow to become more intimate over time. This is especially true when observing the romantic relationship between two individuals. At first, they may be attracted to each other's physical appearance, but over time that will be less of an importance than their ability to communicate and grow together.

Socioemotional Selectivity theory

When an individual begins to age, one will often observe that their priorities change, from that of the tangible to a more emotional appeal. This is explained through the socioemotional selectivity theory, which shows the correlation between perception of time left to live and the individual's goals in life. This theory is easily observed throughout the life stages of an individual.

When a person is younger, they are focused on making money, buying a house and maybe even travel or purchasing an expensive car. When they get older, and are nearing an age where they are likely to die, they begin to focus more on spending time with family and enjoying experiences, rather than possessing things which they know they cannot take with them.

System Justification theory

System justifcation theory is used to understand the behaviours of an individual that are used to defend an institutional system of belief, be it political, legal, or social. The individual would use what they know of the system to justify the need for it to remain the same, rather than identifying areas that have become outdated or are not correct. This usually manifests out of an unconscious act, rather than one that is well thought-out, or based on fact.

An example of this is:

The push for better recycling practices. If the status quo is to throw everything out on one bin -which requires little if any effort - the push against is motivated by the increased amount of effort required to make the switch. Rather than recognising the beneβits of recycling, the individual will focus solely on the ease of the current system, thus attempting to justify it.

Terror Management theory

No one likes to think about death, but everyone agrees that it will happen eventually. Terror management theory explains that the fear an individual may face in relation to the inevitable motivates certain human behaviours, such as their worldviews. A belief in an afterlife, regardless of what that entails, is one of the most common manifestations of terror management theory. By believing that there is a peaceful place that exists once an individual has passed, makes it easier to accept, than believing there is nothing.

Triangular theory of Love

The final theory to be discussed, triangular theory of love, focuses on the relationship between three different factors - intimacy, commitment and passion. The theory shows how an individual classifies relationships using these categories and the degree to which they apply. There are eight categorisations stemming from these three factors, which are used to show the types of relationships.

For example:

Love at first sight is an example of a relationship based solely on passion, whereas a marriage is usually built on commitment and intimacy.

Activity 1: Testing the Schemata theory

Estimated time: 15 minutes

Make sure they know they must recall the information they hear once you have finished reading. Read the paragraph and ask the group to recite the information you have just read. You will likely notice that they have trouble doing so. Now, try the same activity again, but this time, before you read the paragraph, tell them where it has come from.

Read the same paragraph and have them recite the information. After the introduction of the paragraph topic, they should be able to understand, and, therefore, remember the information you have just read. This activity works best with something involving instructions, such as a recipe or something from an instructional manual. Spend a few minutes discussing this with the group after you have completed the activity.

2.7 Strengths and Limitations of Social Psychology

Social psychology offers many positive contributions to both the realm of understanding human behaviour, and psychology, more specifically. However, it equally places some debate over how valid its findings are. This is not unusual in the scientific world; therefore, both these strengths and limitations will be looked at in further detail below.

Strengths

Understanding how human beings, as individuals, interact within the social world has been one of the most positive aspects of social psychology. But these findings are not the only positive aspects of the discipline. For starters, it is scientific, meaning it uses specific processes in order to obtain results. It places an assumption about a specific aspect of human behaviour, tests it, and then compares and retests as a means of putting forth the most accurate data.

Furthermore, the theories that were outlined in the previous section have been tested and retested continuously, which further supports the experiments that have been conducted in this field. This also speaks to the narrowed focus of social psychological research, since each of these theories aims to a different aspect of human social behaviour.

Limitations

Like with anything, social psychology is not without its limitations. One of the biggest challenges to the discipline is that it tends to disregard biology. It focuses on the actions, or behaviours, themselves, but does not consider how differences in genetics, or human makeup may play a factor in the results. Similarly, it also tends to place less of an emphasis on the differences that may arise from one individual to another. Not everyone is the same in many aspects of everyday life, and by underestimating the impact these differences can have on an individual is not always valued when it comes to works of social psychology.

Additionally, social psychology is viewed as taking nothing more than a snapshot of a social interaction. This can equally be viewed as being superficial, particularly when combined with the disregard for biology and individuality. However, this could be said for many other types of research, so should not be grounds for invalidating the contributions of this discipline.

Social psychology applied

Social psychology is most frequently used on the areas of understanding social influence, cognition, behaviour and development. It does so by engaging with various elements that lead to the observance of each.

For example:

But this is only part of how social psychology is applied outside of textbook learning. To gather the information found within those pages, experiments need to take place.

All scientific disciplines rely on experimentation and research as the means of discovering new findings and learning more about the topic at hand. When it comes to social psychology, these experiments take place mainly in the form of lab and/or field trials, questionnaires, or through simple observance.

The use of any of these methodologies helps social psychologists better understand their discipline, which helps the wider public understand how and why they behave the way they do. Without these forms of experimentation, it would be impossible to understand many of the human behaviours that have been identified over the past hundred years or more.

Activity 2: Weighing the Options

Estimated time: 10 minutes

Imagine you are a social psychologist interested in understanding the social behaviours and influences behind shopaholics. You come up with a few assumptions about the behaviour but need to test them to make sure they are not just your opinions. While you would like to be able to use multiple methodologies, you are only budgeted to conduct one.

Of the four methodologies noted in the above section, which do you think is the most beneficial for this research and why?

What aspects of the remaining three made you less certain of their benefit?

Do you think there is one that would not be beneficial at all? If so why?

MODULE SUMMARY

Social psychology is an important branch of psychology as it helps to identify the motives behind the thoughts, actions and feelings of human beings in the social context. Often mistaken for sociology or many of the other forms of social research, it uses numerous theories to explore basic human behaviours and attitudes, particularly when compared with others.

This module provided a definition of the discipline, as well as a history of how it has developed since the early 1900s and the prominent figures that have contributed to it. It then explained many of the theories employed by social psychology, while offering an example of each one. The conclusion of the chapter focused on the practice's strengths and limitations, before looking at how it is applied in the real world.

Upon completion of this module, you should have a better understanding of social psychology, be able to identify the differences between it and its like-disciplines, and explain how each of the theories noted are used.