8.1 Introduction
Psychology has been around for centuries. Although it was not formally recognised until 1732, there have been many changes over the course of its history. But what does this mean and how does this impact the validity of the practice? This module will look at the idea of conceptual change, in a general sense, before exploring the changes that have occurred since the inception of psychology. The impact of the recorded changes on future developments within the field will also be explored, as well as the benefits to society. The module will then conclude by addressing some of the key debates in psychology today and how they are expected to shape the future of the discipline.
8.2 What is Conceptual Change?
Conceptual change is the term used to reference a shift in conceptual or theoretical understanding over time. This can also refer to the shifting behaviour over one's lifetime, rather than it strictly being about a concept of a theoretical nature. But, in more general terms, it is an attempt at understanding the processes that lead to a change in thought or opinion of a previously determined, or viewed, theory, and the recognition of how that came to be over time. In other words, studying conceptual changes analyses the factors that played a role in the shift in understanding.
There are four fields that have researched the processes behind conceptual change extensively. These are cognitive psychology, cognitive development psychology, scientific education, and the history and philosophy of psychology, more broadly. It is the first two that were noted, however, that have had the most influence, particularly on the psychological side of things.
Cognitive psychology has dedicated research to this area of conceptual change. Those researching within cognitive psychology have looked at the processes that lead to these changes. Cognitive psychology has also looked at the factors that led others to remain accepting of various beliefs, even when they have been debunked or proven otherwise. The understanding of conceptual change from the cognitive development psychological perspective has sought to identify the processes that lead to such changes, but at the individual level. This suggests that the changes that occur within an individual can be explained by using the same theory, only it is applied at a more specified level.
8.3 Theories of Conceptual Change
Conceptual change is driven by the observations of inconsistencies within a pre-existing concept or theory and the identified revisions to said models. In saying that, there are numerous ways to look at this, both in terms of understanding and application. The previous sub-section identified that conceptual change can occur within a theoretical model, and within an individual. But, it also depends on the perceptions of those observing the changes and how they identify with their surround environment, or their worldview, for example. As a result, there have been several methods of understanding conceptual change, which will be explored briefly below.
These include: theory change, ontological shift, framework theory, and knowledge in pieces. However, it is important to note that despite a concept looking at the individual's perception, they can easily be applied to the shifts in understanding and perception related to theories and understandings of wider concepts in psychology.
Theory change
Theory change is the exploration of the processes which lead to change within an individual. It posits that the concepts that were learned at any stage within an individual's life are viewed as part of oneself. These concepts are interconnected with one's intuition and would require significant restructuring on their understanding to shift their understanding of the world around them.
Ontological shift
The second theory is known as ontological shift. This perspective of conceptual change suggests that an individual has numerous pre-conceived notions that are not necessarily backed by fact, or experience. These are often incorrectly assigned to the understanding of a certain topic or situation, creating an issue of change when the correct information has been provided.
The framework theory
The framework theory indicates that when an individual experiences a new situation, or have been provided with new information the degree to which the initial understanding of the newly presented concept will determine how it will be received. This means that one's pre-existing views or opinions of a certain topic or situation will influence how new information will be ignored or used to renew one's understanding. One of the challenges with this theory is that the new information can sometimes become distorted within the processing stages. This is known as interference.
Knowledge in pieces
Knowledge in pieces is the final theory to be covered in this section. It is also known as the resources perspective and is the model for understanding how conceptual changes occur and how they can be categorised as smaller resources, rather than one larger set of information. In doing so, it provides easier access to recall and the reorganisation of one's understanding of a concept. After all, this reorganisation of information and understandings is the same as re-categorising other types of resources. The breakdown of information processing in this sense is frequently referred to as sub- conceptual.
8.4 How has Psychology Changed Over time?
The purpose of exploring the idea behind conceptual change, and the theories that seek to explain it was to provide a background that would help to demonstrate how psychology has changed and why. This section will be broken down into four subsections, with each looking at a different aspect of psychological change. Earlier psychological perspectives, mental health, wellbeing, and the emergence of new disciplines will be used to highlight how these changes have occurred.
Early psychological perspectives on behavioural infuences
In the beginning stages of psychology, behaviour was understood as being solely determined by the environment one found themselves in. In other words, it was believed that people were nothing more than the product of their environment. As the discipline expanded, however, so did the concept of behavioural influences. While this is not to suggest that one's environment does not have an effect on how an individual behaves, it does highlight that this is not the only factor that places into these acts, thoughts, or feelings. This led to the idea that an individual has some level of freewill in terms of how one thinks. This is known as the power of choice.
Changes in perception of mental health
Mental health issues of been a part of psychological research almost from the beginning, although it may not always have been recognised as such. Prior to the understandings of the 20th century, those suffering from mental health related challenges were often subjected to horrific experimental measures as a means of curbing what ailed them.
An example to demonstrate how this aspect of psychology has changed can easily be viewed when looking at the surgical procedures that were once used in these instances:
Prior to the more contemporary understanding of mental health, patients who displaced these types of symptoms underwent surgeries that involved drilling holes into their heads. The thought process behind this, was that it freed whatever was causing them to behave in this way. Of course, it is now widely accepted that there was no practical application of that, as it has more to do with imbalances and genetics than it does with releasing an unknown cause.
One of the biggest contributions to the field of psychology, which will be looked at in further detail later in this module, is the understanding of mental illness, and the ability to assess and treat those affected.
Activity 1: Changing Perspectives of Mental Illness
Estimated time: 15 minutes
Head to your preferred search engine and begin to research the history of mental illness. You may select one aspect of history, or look at it as a whole. Use the following questions to guide your research and develop your understanding:
When was the first appearance of mental illness?
What were the methods of assessment and treatment?
What were some of the biggest breakthroughs in mental illness research?
What do you think led to these breakthroughs?
What key concepts have been developed within this field that could be applied to other disciplines?
Why do you think so many people are afflicted by mental illness?
What research is currently underway that will lead to further discoveries in the future?
Perception of wellbeing
One of the changes in psychological thought that has occurred over time is the recognition that human behaviour is not perfect. With this in mind, the correlation between behaviour and attitude, and one's overall health and wellbeing has been better defined. Two examples of this can be found in the relationship between lifestyle behaviours and disease, and poverty and violence. In relation to the link between lifestyle and disease, the attitudes in the United States are the best example:
There are several unhealthy lifestyles that are associated with this part of the world, such as smoking, lack of exercise, and unhealthy diets. Many of these things are linked to diseases known to cause death, such as heart disease and certain types of cancer. Psychology has played a role in this understanding, alongside equally important medical advances. For the latter example, a correlation between the deaths of younger populations and poverty have indicated just how important these scenarios can be in influencing decisions and behaviours. Interestingly, despite the recognition of the link between violence and poverty, and the associated injustices, understanding how to break these cycles is still relatively unknown.
The emergence of new disciplines
The final change covered in this module is that of the emergence of new disciplines, or branches of psychology. Even though many of these newer disciplines were only popularised within the last century or so, discussion and postulations about these concepts were discovered much earlier. Some of the most notable disciplines that found their way into popular psychology within the last century include cognitive neuroscience, evolutionary psychology, and behavioural genetics.
The beginning of the 20th century was focused predominantly on behaviourism, which has been discussed in earlier modules. But as it approached the 21st century, psychology has adopted a more biology, or genetic focused model, which has been beneficial in understanding many of the concepts explored throughout this module and previous ones. It also meant that psychological research was becoming more real-world in nature, rather than hosting studies in a lab setting. This has provided an outlet for more practical findings and applications, than the previous traditional methods.
8.5 How do these Changes Impact the Future of Psychology?
Being able to recognise changes within any field or concept is a beneficial exercise. Understanding how these changes can impact future developments is equally, if not more, beneficial. This section will look at how the changes in psychology are helping to shape a better future.
To start the awareness of the human mind, or consciousness, was relatively limited. The advances in the understanding of how the brain works in relation to influencing behaviours has changed to the point that it is now possible to determine what may be causing the manifestation of diseases such as depression, anxiety, Parkinson's, and Alzheimer's.
While the specific chemical aspects may not be fully known, the recent developments in this area will provide future generations with preventative measures, as well as more humane treatment schedules. Mental illness, has become less stigmatised, and is likely to continue to decline in negative perception in the future.
This is directly associated with the advances in knowledge on this topic. There is a long way to go in this regard, but at least the advances made to date can allow an individual to live a normal life, or at least as close to one as possible. Assessment and treatment are also becoming easier. One problem that has frequently existed in terms of psychological research is the aspect of replication. In many other avenues of scientific research, studies and trials of theories are conducted numerous times by different researchers. This is the method used to strengthen the theory or argument on a certain topic. This has not always been the case in psychology. The problem is so real, that several journals in this field stress policies that forbid replicated studies.
However, this has begun to change in recent years, and is likely to do so the coming decades. Many newer psychologists are making the argument for replication as a means of strengthening the current data. This, they hope, will provide a more credible view of psychological research, since it will require more than one trial to occur before a particular theory can become popular thought.
8.6 How has Psychology Contributed to Society
Looking to the future is a positive way of anticipating the 'what's next' of psychological study. But before moving away from the topic of how things have changed to focus more on the current debates likely to lead into the future, it is worthwhile to look, albeit briefly, at how psychology has been able to contribute to society.
The best way to look at this, is to revisit the definition of psychology. As was noted in Module 1, psychology is the scientific study of human behaviour, and with it goes people and the mind, more generally. Yet, perhaps when looking at society in a wider context, it is easy to see how psychology has been able to contribute to a more recognisable view of the world, and one's immediate surroundings. This means, that through the exploration of psychology, it has been possible to better articulate how one reacts to the events of the world around them, and how they behave in light of certain information or situations.
Understanding the basic concepts of being human has led to positive outlooks of humanity overall, but also how to function better as a society. Secondly, the contribution of psychology to the understanding of the stresses that are present in everyone means that it is possible to gain control of the negative behaviours that may result from some of these scenarios.
In today's world, information flows freely, meaning that world events are publicised now more than ever, and it is becoming increasingly difficult to remove oneself from the outside world altogether. However, with the advancements in psychology, various therapies and approaches have been developed to help so those more susceptible to the negativity in the world can receive treatment and more specific coping strategies. The idea of self-help and/or support groups has placed a needed resource to many who would have otherwise been unable to adapt.
Fact
Only half of the 100 studies replicated in 2008 that had previously been published in top academic journals were done so successfully
Source: Smithsonian Magazine 2015
8.7 Key Debates within Psychological Concepts
There are many debates that could be examined for the purposes of demonstrating how psychological concepts have changed over time, and how they are continuing to do so, as well. Four relevant debates will be outlined within this section. They are nature versus nurture, ethical practices, mental illness, and climate change.
Nature versus nurture
The debate over which holds more influence between nature and nurture has been ongoing for centuries, and does not appear to be ending anytime soon. The most recent application of this debate is towards the topic of gender, and more specifically the differences between hetero and homosexuality. Yes, this has already been determined to be about genetics, but from a psychological perspective, attempting to understand what causes this genetic difference is under the microscope.
In a recent study, that looked at biological and psychological differences between gay and straight people, there was no real difference shown that would gave way to any reason why some people prefer one sex over another. Similarly, the field of psychology is beginning to look beyond this scope, and expanding to include other members of LGBTQ+ community. As a result, psychology is actually becoming a key player in advocating for the rights of this community.
As the scope of nature versus nurture continues to broaden, there is no telling what other aspects of human life may be explored, or how it might highlight the influences and factors that impact the life choices and/or inheritable traits of an individual.
Activity 2: Adding to the Debate
Estimated time: 15 minutes Spend a few minutes exploring the debate of nature versus nurture. The broadening scope of sexuality and the acceptance of the LGBTQ+ community is one way that this understanding has led to a more understanding society.
What other topics are currently being researched that fall under the nature versus nurture debate?
How can this concept help to shape the future to be more inclusive and understanding?
Write a letter to the editor of your local newspaper outlining this.
Ethical practices
The following module will spend a significant amount of time looking at research ethics. However, it is important to brieβly touch on this topic here, as well, since it is a crucial turning point within the history and continuation of the study of psychology. Avoiding bias within a participant-based research study is difficult to achieve at times. The employment of deception has been used as a method of reducing the amount of bias that can occur, yet this has been faced by criticism over the years.
The potential suffering that might arise because this method tends to be at the top of the list of reasons for the unfavourable reception of this practice, and understandably so. In addition to the use of deception, there are continued debates on the best way to conduct proper research and how integrated that has become concerning the values of both the researchers, participants, and outcomes of the study. The increased focus on how ethics are viewed in psychological studies has seen a rise in the more contemporary history of this field.
Policies are created and updated as the ideologies behind standard ethical practices are renewed, revised, and reconsidered. Avoiding the reality of ethical dilemmas is not going to go away, but finding better solutions that meet the needs of both the validity and quality of the study, and the safety and honesty of the participant is something that will be an ongoing challenge for years to come.
Mental illness
The topic of mental illness has been reiterated throughout this module, and there is a good reason for that. Despite the many breakthroughs in the medical and psychological realms of mental illness awareness and knowledge, there is still much that is left to the unknown. The exact chemical changes and imbalances were already noted as being one of the unknowns, and the negative stigma attached to those affected by them, as well.
The study of mental illness is by far the most popular topic in modern medical and psychological research. This is the result of the high prevalence amongst all age groups, including children. With no end in sight for this trend, there is a new, more pressing need to discover more and more about this topic to assess, treat, and when possible prevent these afflictions from manifesting.
Fact
The addition of internet addiction is currently under debate as to whether it should be identified as a form of mental disorder.
Source: Cyber Psychologyz and Behaviour 2009
Psychological perspectives on climate change
The final debate may come across as unusual, but it is related to psychology. Climate change is one of modern history's most pressing events, and what the future holds is somewhat uncertain as a result. Aside from the fact that health and wellbeing placed a significant role in the 2015 Sustainable Development Goals, the application of psychological research and concepts to the pending effects of climate change will help future psychologists and other practitioners lessen the impacts of this environmental concern.
As part of the side effects of climate change, there has been, and will likely continue to be, an elevated occurrence of natural disasters. Already stronger hurricanes, instances of drought, and earthquakes have been reported all over the world. With this comes the psychological fallout, as well as the physical, or perhaps structural ones.
After many of these events have passed, survivors are left to pick up the pieces, while also struggling to maintain a healthy mental state. Emotional, psychological and physical trauma are no stranger to the aftermath. Therefore, services related to depression, stress, memory loss, and other negative mental side effects need to be central to this scientific study, as well.
Additionally, as resources become scarcer, there is an increased risk of conflicts at the local and global scales. Psychology can help to understand the factors that lead to these scenarios, as well as developing platforms of reconciliation. Debates within this field of climate change resilience are often forgotten about, or are contrasted by opinions and ideas about impact, and likelihood of other such events from occurring at all. Using psychology to help mitigate the negative effects of climate change, will play a fundamental role, so long as an agreed upon understanding can be achieved.
MODULE SUMMARY
This module explored the idea of conceptual change, both in terms of psychological research and theories, and on the behaviours of individuals. This took place in the form of deFining conceptual change, and outlining the main theories used to test and describe it. These theories included theory change, ontological shift, framework theory, and knowledge in pieces, or the resources view.
After the demonstration of conceptual changes, the history of psychology was outlined in terms of how things have changed over time. These changes were viewed using four different filters. The first was by looking at the early perspectives of behaviour and how it has transitioned since the first studies in psychology took place. Mental health and the perception of wellbeing were also used as categories of change.
The emergence of new disciplines within psychology was also highlighted, citing cognitive neurology, evolutionary psychology, and behavioural genetics as some of the more influential in recent history. Future impacts because of these changes were also noted, including a better understanding of the brain, the causes and improvement in assessing and treating mental illnesses, and the new pressure to implement replicated studies, which had not previously been a frequent occurrence in psychology.
The contribution of psychology to the wider society was also briefly touched on before the four key debates within psychological concepts were explored. These debates related to nature versus nurture, ethical practices in research, mental illness, and climate change. Upon completing this module, a demonstrable knowledge of the concepts and changes should have been achieved.
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