10.1 Introduction
Peter started school at the age of six, after attending a foundation. During Year 1, he made fair academic progress, but, during Year 2, he was below average and not attaining the required standard in most subjects. His Year 2 teacher reported that he 'didn't like school' and was not highly motivated to achieve. She also said that Peter seemed to be immature, both socially and physically. If there was any trouble in the playground, Peter was sure to be involved.
If he had a problem with anyone, he ran to his teacher, as opposed to trying to work out his problems with other students. He seemed to lack the skills needed to accomplish his school tasks. He was in the lowest of five reading groups. The above scenario is an example of the type of situation typically presented to an educational psychologist. What skills and resources does the psychologist bring to this case, in order to help Peter break out of the cycle of under-achievement, social inadequacy and the resultant loss of opportunity? What will be the consequences of promoting Peter, when he has not yet achieved the minimum standards for Year 2? Where does he even begin?
10.2 Educational Psychology in Context
It is worth noting from the beginning that psychology as a discipline is a relatively new field. The establishment of a laboratory for psychological experimentation in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt is usually taken as the formal beginning of modern psychology. Since then, and especially since the 1930's, modern psychology has been characterised by a growth in professionalism along increasingly specialised lines, to the extent that the following specialisations, amongst others, are widely recognised in today's practice of psychology:
Psychopathology (the study of mental and behavioural deviations)
Therapeutic counselling or clinical psychology (the diagnosis and treatment of emotional issues and the optimum development of human relationships between, for example, spouses and family members)
Environmental psychology (the influence of surroundings on human functioning)
Physiological psychology (the neurophysiological basis of consciousness and behaviour)
Social psychology (human behaviour as a function of the presence of other people and their interactions in society)
Industrial psychology (human functioning in the world of work and optimising the conditions that promote a healthy and satisfying work environment)
Pastoral psychology (psychology in a religious setting, but also applied to the care and welfare of school pupils)
Developmental psychology (human development from infancy to old age)
Psychometrics (psychological measuring instruments and techniques and the application of statistical methods to analyse data)
Within these specialisations, there may be further 'thematic' breakdowns, as individual psychologists focus on increasingly smaller areas of interest, within a particular paradigm or school of thought, which may in itself lead to a rather narrow view of the human condition.
For example
The empiricists - or those advocates of 'methodological operationalism' - believe that if something cannot be operationally defined and measured, it does not even exist! Clearly this is a very limiting view of human nature. Similarly, it was a recurring criticism of the behaviourist school of thought - the viewpoint that psychology as a science can only study observable behaviour - that people are not laboratory rats or pigeons, and the wealth of studies of laboratory rats could not be universally extrapolated, in order to explain the complex behaviour of human beings. Educational Psychology is a specialisation that evolved out of the need to deal with issues of human learning. As such, it incorporates elements of counselling, social psychology, developmental psychology, organisational psychology and psychometrics - in short, all of the above!
As a 'specialisation', it is a prime example of the danger of limiting your outlook to a particular focus. Sadly, even in a school setting, an understanding of psychopathology may also be required from time to time. To be recognised and practised as a psychologist, there is a process of required training, to gain a qualification, and registration.
For example
In the UK, psychologists are registered by the Health & Care Professions Council (HCPC), after undergoing the necessary period of study at a recognised university.
Fact
Recent data (May 2016) from the British Psychological Society shows that the breakdown of Registered Psychologists in the UK looks something like this:
Clinical 56%
Counselling 9%
Educational 20%
Forensic 6%
Health 2%
Occupational 6%
Sport & Exercise 1%
Of these numbers, the percentage of female to male registered psychologists is around 80% female to 20% male.
Source: bps.org.uk
10.3 What Exactly does an Educational Psychologist do?
When it comes to the type of work that a psychologist does, all psychologists can be broadly divided into two camps. Firstly, there is applied psychology, which is the practice and application of psychological theories nd techniques in a variety of settings, from psychotherapy to organisational development. Secondly, there is research psychology, which is the advancement of our understanding of human behaviour and the development of tools to assist the practitioners in their work.
As previously discussed, educational psychologists focus on how people learn, how to prepare instructional materials in order to facilitate learning and how to create a learning environment that optimises the learning experience. Typically, an educational psychologist deals with students of all ages, who are experiencing some form of an obstacle to their achievement of learning, such as a specific learning disability, social or adjustment difficulties or emotional issues that impact their ability and motivation to learn. As such, educational psychologists are usually attached to schools and other institutions of learning or are available as a resource to these places of learning.
For example
Based at a psychological services clinic, serving a particular school area. As this is probably the primary focus and interest of those trained as educational psychologists, we will start with that. 10.4 SEN in Schools The focus of attention of a school-based educational psychologist is on those students who are classified as having special educational needs (SEN).
It is important to note that these students are not only those who have been diagnosed with a specific learning disability, such as dyslexia (problems with reading), dysgraphia (problems with writing) or ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder). They will also include those students who are labelled 'gifted' or have special talents. The opportunity to work with gifted students, in order to enhance and fulfil their potential can be gratifying, as can the opportunity to provide those with learning disabilities the chance to regain their self-esteem and achieve their full cognitive, social and emotional potential.
The educational focus on SEN, particularly in schools, is something that is quite recent. In fact, the majority of today's schools are required by law to appoint and provide resources for the school in theform of staff who are qualified and trained to work with SEN students. The appointment of these specialist educators is in recognition of the diversity of the learning needs of students. Therefore, educational psychologists provide an indispensable resource to the teacher in the classroom who, when dealing with a class of twenty-five or thirty students, does not have the time - and often the skill - to address the diversity of learning needs and styles.
Of course, it is the very ability to deal with students and their individual learning needs that is the hallmark of a gifted teacher. There are career opportunities for those who wish to work directly with students and also for those who prefer a more ' behind the scenes' role of researching and developing learning tools, in order to help teachers to deal with those students identified as having SEN. Equally important is the psychologist's role in helping teachers to accurately identify SEN students in the first place.
Teachers must be trained - usually as part of their undergraduate training but also through Continuing Professional Development (CPD) - to recognise that, although SEN needs students do not learn at the same rate as their peers, they do not have an obvious cognitive or sensory impairment. Such students may learn faster or slower than their peers; they may struggle in all subjects or only in some subjects, and they may be proficient in a particular learning 'style', for example, visual, auditory, or kinaesthetic, but not in other styles. Identifying these many variables, in order to help explain a student's under-achievement is where the skill of the educational psychologist comes in. A student can be said to have an SEN if any of the following apply:
-They have a markedly greater difficulty in learning than most of their classmates
-They have a disability (cognitive or physical) that presents an obstacle to the student using school facilities provided to students of the same age in the school
-Are gifted and therefore require an individualised or differentiated learning programme
Gifted students are said to have a significantly higher potential in one or more of the following areas:
Intellectual: they are very smart in one or more subject areas
Creative: they are innovative writers, artists, performers, etc. Social: they show superior maturity in their relationships
Physical: they demonstrate advanced skills on the sports field
The term 'gifted' is sometimes used to describe potential ability and is also used to describe exceptional ability in any of the academic subjects: English, maths and science. Talented students show above average ability in one or more areas of performance; the term may also be limited to describe exceptional ability in the creative fields of art, design, music, or sport. There is no universal agreement on the definition of - or the difference between - the two terms, but this does not matter.
What you should aim for is to develop programmes that encourage the gifted student to fulfil their potential, by demonstrating their talents in the most fulfilling way. The teacher's response to this identification focuses on evidence-based 'regular' classroom instructional practices, while acknowledging that students do indeed learn differently. So-called 'differentiated' teaching practices are the norm in most classrooms nowadays, and the educational psychologist will be an integral part of the Learning Support Team co-ordinated by a SENCO (Special Educational Needs Coordinator). This multi-disciplinary team includes subject or classroom teachers, SEN specialists, school administrators, social workers and parents.
Together they are responsible for devising IEP's (Individual Learning Plans) for SEN students and ALP's (Advanced Learning Plans) for gifted and talented students. Parental involvement is integral to the process of devising and monitoring the IEP or ALP. The IEP or ALP will be reviewed at least each term, in a progress meeting, chaired by the SENCO. Parents will always be invited to attend and participate in these progress meetings, which may be held more often, in order to review, update or amend the document, as specified by the timelines, goals and objectives in the IEP or ALP.
An essential part of the initial diagnosis will include some form of psychometric evaluation: a battery of tests, designed to evaluate the source and severity of the learning disability. Once again, the educational psychologist has the training and authority to administer and interpret these tests. A distinction is sometimes made between an educational psychologist and a school psychologist. The former often acts as a consultant and specialist outside resource to the latter, who is based in a school and usually has the role of SENCO, but the distinction is not essential.
Fact
The proportion of gifted and
talented students in public elementary and secondary schools in the United
States in 2006 was measured at 6.7%. Of these, 6.3% were male, and 7.0% were
female. Although comparable figures for the UK are not available, there is no
reason to suspect that they may be significantly different.
Source: nces.ed.gov
Behavioural Issues
Although we mentioned earlier that the focus of the educational psychologist is on learning, it is also true that a failure to thrive in the learning environment is not limited to cognitive issues; such as, low IQ and SEN. It could also be due to behavioural problems or to a host of more serious issues, including:
-Autism
-Child abuse
-Unsociable or aggressive reactions
-Delinquency
-Bullying
-Unplanned pregnancy
-Substance abuse
-ADHD
-Dysfunctional family environments
-Anxiety and withdrawal responses
-Absconding and chronic truancy
-Stuttering and developmental disorders, such as bedwetting, sleepwalking, nail-biting and tics often referred to by the blanket term of 'emotional disturbances'.
These are usually indicative of a child having problems in life with which they need assistance. If left unrecognised and untreated, they may have more severe consequences in later life. The treatment for and outcomes of behavioural issues vary and are often dependent on the consistent application by the teacher of, for example, token reinforcement programmes in the classroom and at home.
Once again, the advice and monitoring of such plans by the educational psychologist can go a long way in providing the necessary support to assist the teacher in the classroom. The educational psychologist may be involved in the recommendation of drug therapy for children, as part of the array of treatment options, although this is really the domain of the psychiatrist, not the educational psychologist. The prescribing of drugs, such as Ritalin and tranquilisers, remains controversial. However, our increasing monitoring of dosages and side effects has brought the necessary relief tocountless children suffering the debilitating effects of hyperactivity. Consequently, the consensus seems to be that careful diagnosis and caution in the administration of such drugs holds more benefits than drawbacks.
Technology in the Classroom
Differentiated teaching methods to cater for the variety of learning styles and abilities in the school are a part of every teacher's job description. To a large extent, the success of differentiation has been enhanced by the availability of sophisticated technology in the classroom and the ability of the teacher to effectively use this technology. So-called 'smartboards' or interactive whiteboards are now standard equipment in most classes in better-equipped schools.
This equipment has allowed teaching to become more learner-centred, encouraging the students to engage more actively in the learning process. This technology places a responsibility on the educational psychologist to understand and be able to use these resources, in order to optimise the learning experience for all students and be able to advise the classroom teacher on the correct methodology and techniques, to ensure maximum learner engagement. For the practitioner who was a student pre-1980, this can be a challenge, as the classroom has 'flipped' from teacher-centred 'chalk and talk' to student-centred active learning.
Activity 1: Practice role-play as an educational psychologist
Estimated time: 15 minutes
A social worker is not sharing information with you, the educational psychologist. How would you go about persuading the social worker that there is a need for co-operation, which would be of benefit to the students?
Write down a list of benefits of sharing information. How would you respond to the objection that such information is confidential?
The social worker challenges your history of sharing information. Respond, without escalating the confrontation.
10.5 Qualifications and Training
Educational psychologists require a minimum of a Master's degree in educational psychology, together with the prescribed coursework and thesis. A Master's degree is usually sufficient to be able to practise as a school psychologist, to conduct some educational testing and to conduct counselling in a school setting. If you wish to practise as a psychologist, professional registration and licensing with a regulatory body, such as the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) in the UK is required, and, in most countries, a period of professional internship as well.
The internship may require an interview and 'matching' process, and there are usually more applications for internships than there are available placements. In most cases, and definitely in the UK, a doctorate (PhD) in educational psychology or an equivalent discipline is required, before you can work as a registered psychologist. The undergraduate coursework will include the subjects of statistical methods, evaluation and assessment techniques, research methodology, psychopathology, as well as a thorough grounding in the theory and practices of individual and group therapeutic procedures, for children and adolescents.
Because of the diversity and confidential nature of their work, educational psychologists must develop strong interpersonal skills and the ability to sensitively deal with a wide range of people: young children and adolescents, their teachers and head teachers and the parents of the students. Salaries in the UK are set using the Soulbury Pay Agreement, which can be found via the National Union of Teachers (NUT). Local travel may be required, to schools and clients' homes. Regular working hours (9am-5pm) are usually observed, with some evenings allocated to Parent-Teacher Conferences.
10.6 Success Factors
What makes a successful educational psychologist?
Knowledge and skill
The successful practitioner must have a thorough grounding in both education (they must understand what makes for a gifted teacher), and psychology - they must have training in developmental psychology (the work of Piaget is particularly important), psychopathology and the theory and practice of counselling. Staff and students must recognise and respect this skill and knowledge. Ability to work with all stakeholders
The successful practitioner will be at the centre of the interaction between student(s), teacher(s), social worker(s), parents and school leadership. Each of these stakeholders may have a different outlook on the issues and a different set of needs and desired outcomes. The skill of the educational psychologist is to reconcile these different expectations and needs.
Acceptability by the students
The students must like and respect the person in the role,
find them approachable, trust them with sensitive/confidential information and
know that they, in turn, are being appreciated. Without this, the job simply
cannot be done effectively.
Know your constituency
To be effective, the educational psychologist must know the school, its ethos and leadership values, its staff and administrators and what the students think of them. They must be good listeners and astute observers of behaviour. They must be able to provide both students and staff with strategic information and feedback, in order to enhance mutual understanding.
Identify and react to topical issues
The educational psychologist must be able to develop resources which proactively address current issues.
Examples:
-Devise an anti-bullying campaign
-Develop a programme to promote the school's mission and value
-Prepare guidance on healthy eating. Maintain confidentiality
The educational psychologist is privy to confidential information about students, their parents and the staff. While they have a responsibility to keep the school's leadership and staff informed of issues that affect the promotion of learning in the classroom, this cannot be at the cost of a loss of trust.
Robust mental health is a requirement
Continually working with people who are facing life challenges and difficulties is stressful. Educational psychologists must have the ability to self-examine. Scheduling regular personal counselling sessions is advised.
Interpersonal skills
Although not unique to educational psychologists, the following personal attributes contribute to job success: a persuasive, assertive and effective negotiator and mediator; superior communication skills, both written and oral; diplomacy, sensitivity and tact; good administrative and timemanagement skills. Continuing professional development
Lifelong learning - through reading, short courses and research - is a feature of this profession. New therapeutic techniques are continually being developed, and there is an on-going need to keep up with the latest research and ideas.
Activity 2: Evaluating a school's learning practices
Estimated time: 15 minutes
The commitment of teachers at your school to differentiated teaching and learning practices and the monitoring of IEP's is very erratic. How would you address this?
Is there a need for CPD in relation to the issues?
Are there structures in place (SENCO, Learning Support Team)?
Do they meet regularly, to review the cases? Is there sufficient commitment from the school leadership?
10.7 Where do Educational Psychologists Work?
In the UK, most educational psychologists are employed by local authorities and based in the psychological services of the education departments and provide services to schools, nurseries, colleges and community environments. Others might be found in child psychiatric units, paediatric assessment units or regional social services' assessment centres. Teaching and research at university level is another employment option, as is working as a freelance consultant, offering psychological services to independent schools, non-government organisations and families and individuals. The Association of Educational Psychologists (AEP, www.aep.org.uk) is a professional associationand a trade union for registered educational psychologists in the UK and is a key source of employment opportunities. The demand for qualified educational psychologists varies widely, depending, to some extent, on your willingness to travel, both locally and internationally.
For example
The need for SEN staff is high in the Middle East and Far East and on the Asian sub-continent. A stint of two to five years living and working as an expatriate in one of these locations will provide valuable work experience, while, at the same time, demonstrate a sense of adventure and independence, which is always good on a CV, especially if job opportunities at home are scarce.
Module Summary
This module described the contexts within which the work of the educational psychologist takes place. It differentiates educational psychology from the other main branches of psychology, both within the scope of its activities and in the qualifications and training that are required, in order to perform the role. The module described the critical importance of this role in the education environment, not only in terms of dealing with those students who, for a wide variety of reasons, are under-achieving, but also its importance to those students who may not be fulfilling their potential, due to a lack of\ differentiated teaching and learning practices.
The contribution that the educational psychologist can make is at both ends of the spectrum of special educational needs: the under-performer and the gifted or talented student. Although schools and universities are the most common places in which the educational psychologist will work, both as practitioners and researchers, the training provided may equip the psychologist with the knowledge and skills to work in other areas. Such work could be in private practice, in a variety of non-government organisations or as a member of a multi-disciplinary team comprising other health and care professionals. We described the personal and professional attributes required, in order to become a competent practitioner and discussed current employment opportunities, both in the UK and other parts of the world.
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