Constructivism and Motivation

6.1 Introduction

This module will introduce you to the theory of constructivism, and the following section will teach you about some different methods and theories of motivation. We will begin by defining constructivism and then cover some of the most popular and exciting theories in the field. Next, we will investigate how this concept is related to education and go in depth with regards to some teaching techniques that apply to this theory. We will finish with a section on motivation and some popular theories about how to motivate.

6.2 What is Constructivism?

Constructivism is a theory which attempts to explain the nature of human knowledge and how we learn. The theory is derived from numerous different philosophies, and its roots can be traced all the way back to the Greek philosophers, Heraclitus and Protagoras. There are many different types of constructivism, but they all share a common critique of the traditional belief that, when learning, the mind is a passive participant in the process. From the constructivist viewpoint, learning is an active process, in which you primarily construct your knowledge through your previous experiences, culture and world view, as opposed to simply acquiring it. Due to this, constructivists believe that any new information is connected with prior knowledge; thus, individuals' knowledge of the world is subjective. Next, we will go over some of the main constructivist theories.

Fact

Over the last several decades, constructivism has been one of the dominant influencers of science education, due to its ability to successfully teach by doing, as opposed to watching.

Source: educ.cam.ac.uk

6.3 Critical Constructivism

Like other theories of
constructivism, critical constructivism focuses on the social and cultural
impacts on learning, but the theory goes further, in order to promote changing
the cultural and social environment, to maximise the success of everyone. In
critical constructivism, a link between knowledge and power is drawn,
indicating that those who hold the most power in a society are able to
construct the knowledge that is viewed as legitimate. This is done through
undermining any alternative schools of thought. Critical constructivism
advocates reforming traditional research and teaching methods, which have
historically, even if unintentionally, contributed to the division and
oppression of individuals, based on race, culture, gender and class.

Genetic Epistemology

The genetic epistemology theory was developed by one of the primary constructivist theorists, Jean Piaget (1896-1980). This theory establishes a link between knowledge and how it was gained. In genetic epistemology, the validity of knowledge is dependent upon how it was constructed. Therefore, knowledge that was constructed through first-hand experience is thought to be more valid than knowledge that is theoretical or learned second-hand. In this theory, there are three different types of knowledge: physical knowledge, logical mathematical knowledge and social knowledge. Physical knowledge is knowledge about the surrounding environment and is directly experienced. Piaget has equated the construction of physical knowledge to learning. The ability to think in a more abstract way and to solve problems is associated with logical mathematical knowledge. Social knowledge is the capacity to interact with others in an appropriate manner and to fit in throughout different social groups.

Radical Constructivism

The theory of radical constructivism proposes that all knowledge is subjective. It is the belief that, if two people were to experience the same thing, there would be no way to prove that they experienced it in a similar way. Each subjective experience of events, people, places or even language could vary vastly, from individual to individual. Although the theory does not state that this is necessarily the case, it puts forward the possibility. The philosopher, Ernst von Glasersfeld (1917-2010), is well known for his model of this theory.

Social Constructivism

The theory of social constructivism, developed by the Soviet psychologist, Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), emphasises the importance of social interactions in the construction of knowledge. Vygotsky believed that culture plays an extremely important role in development, leading to different rates of cognitive development across different cultures. His theory states that, as children grow, they co-construct knowledge with those with whom they interact, as opposed to constructing knowledge independently. Therefore, their environment has a much larger impact on how they think and what it is that they think about. According to this theory, collaborative learning methods would be more effective than traditional learning methods.

6.4 Jean Piaget

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist, who is often credited for helping to reinforce the theory of constructivism from within the human perception. Piaget, who considered himself a genetic epistemologist, is responsible for much of the attention that the theory currently receives and was even referred to by the philosopher, Ernst von Glasersfeld, as 'the great pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing'. The primary focus of Piaget's work was in child development and the acquisition of knowledge, which lead to his theory of cognitive development. This theory focuses on the nature and development of knowledge and how it is constructed. Specifically, Piaget addresses the processes of assimilation and accommodation and categorises the development of children into four stages; the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage, the concrete operational stage, and the formal operational stage.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

The four stages of development are outlined below: 

Sensorimotor stage: This initial stage takes place at birth, up until two years old or until the individual learns to speak. 

Preoperational stage: The second stage begins at around the age of two and lasts up until the age of seven.

Concrete operational stage: This is from the age of seven until eleven.

Formal operational stage: This is from the age of eleven to sixteen and onwards and is characterised by the development of the ability to think abstractly.

Schemata

Under this theory, humans have an internal framework, known as a schema, which they develop over the course of their life through experiences and interactions. This schema, while not entirely static, is difficult and often uncomfortable to change, even when presented with information that directly contradicts it. Due to this, people will often ignore or alter information that threatens an existing schema. Assimilation and Accommodation Assimilation is whereby an individual is presented with new information that does not interfere with their schema. In this case, they are able to incorporate the information into their schema, without having to alter it.

In other words, what is experienced in the outside world is able to enter their internal world, without changing its structure. On the other hand, accommodation is whereby the new information contradicts a set schema and, in response, the individual alters their world view, in order to fit the new information. This can be a difficult and painful process and, therefore, some individuals may avoid it all together by ignoring or altering the information.

6.5 Constructivism in Education

Although constructivism does not
refer to any specific style of teaching, it has had a definite influence on the
field of education. There are many practices and styles of teaching that have
been directly affected by or modelled on the theory of constructivism. It has
also influenced how instructors engage with their students in the classroom. In
constructivism, students are expected to take a more active role in learning,
rather than the passive role that is often taken in a traditional classroom
setting. Next, we will cover some of these techniques.

Constructionism

Constructionism is a theory of
learning developed by a protégé of Jean Piaget, Seymour Papert (1928- 2016). It
is based upon the constructivist learning theories of Piaget, with whom he
worked at the University of Geneva from 1958 to 1963. Under this theory, an
individual is best able to learn when constructing something in the physical
world. In a constructionist classroom setting, the teacher would take the role
of mediator, as opposed to than that of instructor. The teacher's goal is to
help students understand the problem in an interactive way, as opposed to just
through lectures. One teaching method used in constructionism is called
problem-based learning. This method requires that students break up into small
groups, whereby they are each assigned a role. They are then introduced to a
variety of problems. To solve the problems, they first need to identify what
they already know, then what they need to know, and finally how to acquire the
necessary information. Through this method, the teacher acts as a facilitator.

Dynamic Assessment

Dynamic assessment is based upon the research of psychologist, Lev Vygotsky. It is used as an alternative to the standard IQ test. The assessment tests what the student knows, as well as what they can potentially learn, by finding their zone of proximal development. This is done by measuring a student's independent problem-solving skills and then measuring those skills, while under the minimal guidance of a more qualified tutor. The most challenging problem that a student can complete while receiving guidance indicates their 'zone of proximal development' or their potential to learn.

Active Learning

Active learning is the term used
for a teaching method whereby the teacher attempts to involve the students in
the learning process as much as possible. It is an interactive teaching process,
which requires the participation of each student, as opposed to the more
traditional process, whereby a teacher lectures, while the students listen
passively. Students learn through a variety of active techniques, including
data gathering, asking questions, group work and more. There are many different
exercises that a teacher can facilitate in an active learning environment.

One
of the more commonly used exercises is class discussion. Class discussion is
used, once a teacher has fully covered a topic. Once the class is informed,
each student is expected to intelligently engage the classroom in a discussion
on the said topic. This exercise helps the students to think critically about
what they have just learnt. Another frequently used method is student debate.
With this method, students are expected to gather relevant information and
prepare and engage in a debate with fellow classmates.

A third method is playing a class game - this makes learning about the topic fun for the students,  which makes it more likely that they will stay engaged. 'Think-pair-share' is another active learning activity, which is useful in smaller class settings. With this technique, students are meant to reflect on the information given to them in the previous lecture or lesson. After spending some time thinking about the material, the students are paired up into small groups, to discuss what they were thinking about. Next, each student will share what they had  been discussing with the entire class. This encourages each student to think critically about the topic and to be well-prepared.

Fact

Research done studying the efficacy of active learning has concluded that, not only does it lead to improvements in thinking and writing, but it also leads to better attitudes in class.

Source: Prince, Michael - 'Does Active Learning Work? A Review of the Research', Bucknell University

Learning by Teaching

Learning by teaching is another
constructivist teaching technique, whereby students are expected to create a
lesson plan and then teach a class in whichever way they see fit. In this
method, the teacher plays more of a passive role and acts as a facilitator, in
order to guide the lesson along smoothly. One common approach to the learning
by teaching method is known as LdL. In this method there are two parts: the
anthropological basis and the subject related component. This method helps to
instil responsibility and encourages a student to be prepared, although
students must be motivated to be successful using the LdL technique, due to the
increased workload.

Harkness Table

The Harkness table, also known as
a Harkness discussion or method, involves the students sitting in a circle,
facing one another. In this configuration, a discussion takes place, covering a
given topic or topics. Once again the teacher acts more as a facilitator, in
order to help guide the conversation, when necessary, but, ideally, they should
intervene as little as possible. As with many of these techniques, the Harkness
table is most effective, when the class size is small.

Jigsaw Classroom

Designed by psychologist, Elliot Aronson, the jigsaw classroom was originally developed to ease racial tensions in newly integrated schools, by forcing students out of their individual cliques.

This method breaks the students up into individual groups. Once in their groups, each student is assigned a topic to research. After the information is reviewed, each student then presents the information that they learned on the topic to their group. Next, the groups are broken up, and new groups are made, based on each student's specific topic. Again, each student presents to their new topic-based group, whereby the others in the group can help fill any gaps in information on the given subject. Finally, each student creates a report on their topic, and then the original group reconvenes, to share their final presentations.

Cognitive Apprenticeship

Cognitive apprenticeship is
whereby an individual who is an expert in a given field or skill set teaches
someone who is a novice. What makes this method so effective is the context in
which the skill is being taught. In a normal classroom environment, you learn
the information but may not see how to practically apply it. A cognitive
apprentice is given the information in a real world setting, allowing them to
see it in action and practise the skill as they learn it. In this way, the
application of the skill and the teaching of it are one and the same, helping
the student retain and fully understand the information

6.6 Teachers in Constructivism

In a constructivist learning environment, the role of the teacher is quite different than in a traditional classroom. In a traditional classroom, the teacher's responsibility is to lecture and provide a lesson, while the students listen passively and acquire the knowledge. In a constructivist classroom, the teacher acts more as a facilitator, by simply asking questions, when necessary, in order to help guide the discussion along. It is the students' responsibility to actively engage in the conversation. In this classroom environment, the teacher should keep things as interactive and democratic as possible, while giving students autonomy and the responsibility to actively learn from and teach one another.

According to the constructivist and educational reformer, David H. Jonassen (1947-2012), teacher have three major roles in the constructivist classroom, and these are outlined below.

Modelling

The first of these roles is modelling, of which there are two different types: behavioural modelling and cognitive modelling. Behavioural modelling is whereby the teacher performs the activity in front of the students, in order to demonstrate how it is done. Cognitive modelling is an explanation of the reasoning that the students should follow, when performing a given task.

Coaching

The second role for teachers is
coaching. When coaching, a teacher should provide any necessary advice or
encouragement, but it is up to the students to perform and complete the task.
The teacher plays a more passive role and is there only to facilitate the
students' successful completion of the goal.

Scaffolding

The final role for teachers is scaffolding. Scaffolding involves developing strategies, in order to maximise the students' potential for success. The teacher should have a decent understanding of their students' current abilities and design activities, which help to challenge the students and increase their knowledge beyond their current capacity.

Activity 1: What active or constructivist learning techniques have you engaged in?

Estimated time: 10-15 minutes

From class discussion to class games, a Harkness table or learning by teaching, most of us have had some experience with constructivist teaching techniques during our time at school. Think about which techniques you have experienced and whether or not you found them to be helpful. If you have never participated in a constructivist learning environment, think about which technique you would like to participate in and in what ways you think that it would be helpful.

6.7 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

In motivation for learning, there are two primary types, which are known as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is whereby an individual is self-motivated because they have a personal interest or they enjoy a specific task. An example would be someone who enjoys painting and making a piece of art. Extrinsic motivation is whereby an external force drives your motivation to accomplish something. It is usually driven by some sort of reward, such as, money, praise or grades, or to avoid punishment.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs was proposed by American psychologist, Abraham Maslow, in 1943. The hierarchy, often represented as a pyramid, is a theory of motivation which states that anindividual must meet their lower level, or deficiency needs, before they can try for their higher level, or growth needs. The lower level needs tend to be more physiological and meet basic necessities, while the higher level needs tend to be more psychological. The five levels in Maslow's Hierarchy are as follows.

Physiological needs (deficiency need)

These are the basic things needed for human survival, and they supersede all other needs. They include the need for shelter, air, food, water, clothing, sleep and sex. If one of these needs is not met, then, under this theory, an individual will do what is necessary, in order to have it met, before concerning themselves with higher level needs.

Safety needs (deficiency need)

The second level covers a person's need for safety. This includes physical safety, as well as financial safety, and your health and wellbeing. People go about establishing safety through insurance, moving to a safer neighbourhood, as well as starting a savings account.

Social needs (deficiency need)

At this level, the need for love, connection, belonging and intimacy are the main driving forces. In some individuals, especially children, the social needs can even surpass the lower order physiological and safety needs. This is exemplified by individuals who risk their own wellbeing, in order to maintain abusive relationships.

Esteem (deficiency need)

Esteem is the need for acceptance, appreciation and respect from others and yourself. Not only do people at this level desire respect from those around them, but they also need self-esteem. Individuals who lack self-esteem are at risk of developing an inferiority complex. Both esteem and the social needs level of the hierarchy are known as the psychological levels.

Self-actualisation (growth need)

This need is not driven by an attempt to fix a deficit, but for personal growth. This is the desire to better yourself and to do so just because it is possible. Maslow believes that you must have mastered all the other levels, before you can pursue self-actualisation.

Activity 2: Your physiological level needs

Estimated time: 10 minutes

Think about times whereby your physiological level needs, such as food and water, were not being met.

How did this affect your higher level needs?

We have all had times whereby we were thirsty or hungry during a lecture or had to use the bathroom during a big exam. How do these circumstances affect your motivation to pay attention and do well?

How about when all your basic needs are satisfied? How does this affect your higher level psychological needs?

6.8 ARCS Model of Motivational Design

Developed by John Keller, the ARCS model of motivational design theorises that there are four steps to sustaining motivation in a learning environment: attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction. While all the steps are considered important, according to Keller, the first two are considered the most important. Attention Attention is considered the most important step in the model; it is the interest that the individual has in the topic. There are two suggestions that Keller gives, in order to gain attention. Method one is through perceptual arousal. Perceptual arousal is whereby a new, surprising or novel approach is used, in order to garner attention. The other method is inquiry arousal, which is whereby a challenging or difficult problem is introduced, in order to help attract attention.

Relevance

Relevance is the second most important step in the ARCS model. In order to establish relevance, it is important to illustrate why the information would be useful and important to the learner. Keller suggests several techniques, in order to establish relevance. One of these techniques is to give students the choice in how to organise and accomplish their work. Another is to establish the present and future worth, by letting the student know how the subject will be important to them, both currently and in the future.

Experience

Experience is also a technique used, whereby the teacher helps the students understand how the new information will help to enhance their past experiences and knowledge.

Confidence

Confidence also motivates a student to become more successful. When the learner believes that they can be successful, they become more motivated, in order to try and accomplish this goal. One way in which to help increase a student's confidence is by establishing clear evaluation criteria, as well as providing timely and positive feedback, when warranted. Satisfaction Satisfaction, the final step in the ARCS model, is usually based on some sort of grade, award, praise or sense of achievement. Although many of the techniques work on an extrinsic motivation level, the satisfaction that you may experience from a task well done can also lead to intrinsic motivation.

Module Summary

In this module, we covered both the concept of constructivism and some theories of motivation. We began by explaining constructivism and how it pertains to the construction of knowledge. We then covered some of the more relevant constructivist theories, including critical constructivism, social constructivism and genetic  epistemology. Once we had a solid understanding of constructivism and its many theories, we then covered the Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget, one of the leading constructivists and pioneer of the theory of genetic epistemology.

The module continued to briefly touch on Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Following on from Piaget, we moved on to how constructivism has affected education and introduced several different constructivist teaching techniques. These techniques included constructionism, dynamic assessment, active learning, learning by teaching, Harkness table, jigsaw classroom and cognitive apprenticeship. After this, we moved on from constructivism and changed our focus to motivation. Firstly, we covered how intrinsic motivation has to do more with being self-motivated, while extrinsic motivation involves being motivated, based upon receiving some sort of reward or avoiding punishment. We went on to cover Maslow's hierarchy of needs and its five stages of needs: