5.1 Introduction
This module takes what you have already learnt about educational psychology in general and focuses it more narrowly in relation to its link to developmental psychology, in order to better understand the relationship between the two. We will begin with a definition of the concept of developmental psychology and a brief examination of some of the most influential thinkers in this field.
5.2 What is Developmental Psychology?
Essentially, developmental psychology relates to the study of the key changes and transformations that human beings go through during the course of their lives. These changes are broadly broken down into biological changes, psychological changes and social changes. During this module, we will specifically focus on the psychological transformations that individuals go through and some key concepts and theories relating to how they come about.
Psychologists, Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget, were among the first to study the discipline of developmental psychology. Their focus was primarily on the development that children go through prior to reaching adulthood. However, as the popularity of developmental psychology has grown and psychologists have become more interested in the links that it potentially has to the maturation and development of the human mind, the discipline has naturally expanded out to include the development of humans throughout the whole course of their life, not just during childhood. Later in this module, we will further discuss this full life cycle theory, specifically in relation to the work of Erik Erikson.
5.3 The Theories of Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939), an Austrian neurologist, coined the well-known and often thought of as controversial theory of psychosexual development, which is how a human being's personality develops during the course of their childhood. Freud believed that, by the age of five, a child's future personality is largely established, due to the fact that the early experiences to which a child is subjected have a key and defining impact on child's and that this will stay with them during the course of their lifetime. Freud identified five major stages in this development, all of which must be satisfactorily completed and achieved, in order to culminate in a so called healthy adult personality. These five stages are as follows:
-The oral stage.
-The anal stage.
-The phallic stage.
-The latency stage.
-The genital stage.
Freud believed that any issues or conflicts that arose during the course of any of these stages resulted in fixations, essentially meaning that the child remained stuck in that particular stage and, as a result, developed negative or destructive adult behaviours relating to that specific fixation.
For example
Fixations associated with the oral stage could be oral activities, such as smoking or aggression, whereas fixations stemming from the phallic stage could be vanity or inadequacy. Freud's theories were ground-breaking and incredibly controversial at the time and remain disputed to this day, with many critics feeling that these theories are too difficult to scientifically test or evaluate. Critics also feel that it is too difficult to prove true cause and effect, due to the length of time between early childhood experiences and subsequent adult personalities.
Many also feel that his theories are too focused on male psychosexual development, neglecting that of females. However, it can be said that Freud's work went a long way towards our understanding of human development and the importance of early life experiences in shaping our subsequent personalities. In particular, the recognition that unconscious influences, particularly in early life, play a big part in the development of humans is a theory that largely abounds to this day and is one of the key cornerstones of the theory of developmental psychology.
Fact
Sigmund Freud coined the idea of the 'talking cure' or 'talk therapy', in order to treat psychiatric conditions.
Source: Wikipedia
5.4 The Work of Jean Piaget and his Concept of Schemata
Another influential thinker in the field of developmental psychology was the Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980). Piaget believed that the development of a child was primarily linked to their interaction with their environment and that their personality and intelligence were not fixed traits and, instead, were linked to the process of development that they go through during their childhood. Interestingly, Piaget's work differs from other developmental psychology theories in that it focuses more on development, as opposed to the learning of information or behaviours, looking at the cognitive processes that the child goes through, in order to develop their future adult personality.
A key part of Piaget's work was his concept of schemata. Schemata can be thought of as the building blocks of cognitive development, the way in which the human mind processes and organises information, in order to make sense of the world and to react to future, similar situations. A good way of looking at this concept was coined by Wadsworth in 2004, likening schemata to index cards in the brain, whereby each card could be called upon by a person, when experiencing a situation that tells them how to react to it.
Piaget believed that these schemata have learned during the course of a human development, and therefore increase in volume and complexity as a child matures, but also that some schemata are innate, such as the sucking reflex of a newborn child. 5.5 Understanding Erikson's Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development
The psychologist, Erik Erikson (1902 - 1994), was another supporter of recognising particular stages of development, but he expanded this, to look both at infants and teenagers and ultimately adults. Psychological theories based on stages were prevalent, while Erikson was developing his work, but his theory differs from others' theories, as he stated that it is not necessary for an individual to fully complete one stage, before successfully moving on to the next stage.
However, his work does draw some parallels with Freud's, for example; as it is mainly concerned with how personality and behaviour is influenced after birth, particularly during childhood. Later in this module, we will explore the concept of nature versus nurture, and, as part of this concept, we will see that Erikson's theory clearly supports the nurture side of the argument. Erikson's work is a well-regarded concept in the field of psychological development, particularly his 1950 book: 'Childhood and Society'.
His theories were largely developed as a result of extensive field research with Native American communities, in addition to his time carrying out clinical therapy work. It is this background that many say gives his concepts more practical and socially-integrated importance, compared to Freud's work, which is more biological and sexually-orientated. Below is a table that summarises the eight stages of development that Erikson speaks of. In essence, he states the challenges that each person faces in that particular stage and believes that each challenge should be overcome, in order to prevent related issues in later life.
These eight stages all offer
different challenges and needs, which must be met, in order for the individual
to thrive from a psychological perspective. They are often referred to as
'crises' in that each stage has a unique set of challenges that should be
overcome. However, later in his life, Erikson was keen to warn against those
who interpreted each stage as being arbitrarily passed or failed, instead
preferring to refer to a ratio between the positive and negative at each stage.
He believed that, as long as the ratio was weighted towards the positive, that
individual would be better able to meet future life crises in a functional way.
Conversely, if an individual went through a psychosocial crisis stage, they may
develop a tendency towards one or other of the negative characteristics, which
then becomes a behavioural tendency or even a more serious psychological
problem in their later life. In order to better understand some of the theories
relating to Erikson's work, as well as some of the parallels drawn with Freud's
work, we will take a look at each of the eight stages in more detail, as
outline below:
Stage 1 - Trust versus Mistrust
Erikson felt that a baby will be better positioned to develop a healthy balance between trust and mistrust, if they are consistently and adequately fed and cared for by their parents or other carers, with a particular connection with their mother. If the child is neglected or abused as an infant, Erikson believed that this would probably destroy future trust in people and subsequently hinder the development of future healthy relationships, as a lack of trust increases an individual's resistance to risk exposure and exploration. However, it should also be noted that over-indulgence or over-protection can have an equally negative effect on psychological development, as it can mean that the infant develops a false sense of trust and therefore a failure to sufficiently grasp reality. In summary, babies who grow up learning to trust in a healthy way are much more likely to have a positive view of the world. Parallels can be drawn here with Freud's oral stage, whereby feeding, crying, teething, etc. are the main experiences that the infant has, and their relationship to their maternal figure is crucial, in developing a feeling of trust, as opposed to abandonment, in the subconscious mind. In other words, the maternal figure ensures that all their needs are met, and, therefore, the sense of trust is developed in the infant.
Stage 2 - Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
This stage seeks to instil a sense of self-reliance and confidence in the young child, allowing them to think freely and develop their own ideas and sense of self in an adequate manner. Erikson and Freud both linked this primarily to toilet training, with Erikson also expanding the concept to other more general aspects of toddler exploration and the role of the parents in supporting this discovery phase and allowing the child to freely express themselves and not making them feel inferior or ashamed of their behaviour.
Stage 3 - Initiative versus Guilt
In this stage, parents are encouraged to allow children to take part in adventure and experimentation, rather than suppressing them. If children are not allowed to take their own initiative and experiment, due to the possibility of being told off or not gaining their parents' approval, they are likely to 'play it safe' in later life, for fear of being reprimanded or being seen as stupid. Of course, parents must also weigh up the risks, when deciding what activities to support, but, generally speaking, they should allow their child to freely explore within realistic boundaries, in order to achieve successful psychological development at this stage.
Stage 4 - Industry versus Inferiority
This stage could be said to correlate with Freud's latency stage, whereby sexual concerns are minimised, as the individual focuses on work and the development of skills. In this stage, children who experience success or achievement at something, often during schooling, are more likely to feel positive and satisfied and are more likely to seek out such experiences in the future. On the other hand, children who are subject to frequent failures may be more likely to experience feelings of inferiority and inability with regards to effectively contributing to the world of work or society as a whole.
Stage 5 - Identity versus Role Confusion
This stage specifically relates to adolescence and correlates to the time that individuals are attempting to understand their own individual sense of self in relation to the world around them. The negative aspect, role confusion, occurs when they are unable to understand their own sense of identity. The building of social relationships, in particular friendships, is a critical factor during this stage.
Stage 6 - Intimacy versus Isolation
Intimacy can be defined as the successful forging of relationships, both physical and emotional, and the ability to form healthy adult relationships, based on mutual respect, support, trust and comfort. It is during this stage that the development of romantic and sexual relationships is most prominent. In contrast, isolation is the feeling of being excluded from others and the world at large, resulting in loneliness and potential social withdrawal. Erikson has linked this particular stage to Freud's genital stage.
Stage 7 - Generativity versus Stagnation
The crisis relating to this stage is about making a positive contribution towards the world, particularly in relation to parenting and caring. Stagnation takes further the idea of isolation from stage 6, resulting in excessive self-interest and selfishness, as the individual does not contribute to those around them in a positive manner; such as, in a parenting role.
Stage 8 - Integrity versus Despair
Erikson's final stage covers the feelings that people have towards the end of their life, when reflecting on the contribution that they feel they have made to the world around them. If someone identifies with the integrity concept, they generally feel at peace with the world and their place in it, with few regrets about the course that their life has taken or their actions during their life. As a general rule, if an individual has successfully passed through the previous stages, they are more likely to achieve full integrity in the final stage, whereas despair can result in previous crises not being well met and feelings of a life wasted, with many regrets.
5.6 The Question of Nature versus Nurture
Developmental psychology further concerns itself with to what extent nature and nurture contribute towards an individual's development and, furthermore, how they interact with each other. To define these concepts, nature generally refers to the characteristics that are inherited from a child's parents and are present from birth, whereas nurture refers to the impact of the external environment, such as how we were raised, our social relationships, etc., linked to the process of learning through experiences.
Developmental psychologists have disputed and debated these concepts for many years, and there is still no conclusive evidence to prove which has more of a defining feature on an individual's future personality, as it is notoriously difficult to prove cause and effect. However, two of the most effective ways to study the nature - nurture conundrum relates to studying identical twins, who have the same genotype, and, therefore, theoretically, the same nature background, and also children who have been adopted, who are likely to have different nurture characteristics. The debate surrounding nature versus nurture can be traced back to the very founding of the study of psychology.
For example
The philosophers Plato and Descartes felt that certain characteristics were certainly inherited or present from birth, regardless of the environmental factors to which an individual was subjected. In contrast to this, other philosophers, such as John Locke, were proponents of the view that the mind begins as a blank slate (or a tabula rasa) and our external experiences fully define our personality.
Fact
The Minnesota Twin Family Study, conducted from 1979 to 1999, followed identical and fraternal twins, separated at an early age, and found that many behaviours did show a genetic influence.
Source: Live Science
5.7 Understanding Empiricism and Rationalism
We will now move on to look at some well-regarded theories relating to developmental psychology, namely empiricism and rationalism. Empiricists believe that either all or most characteristics and knowledge results from learning and experience. Rationalists claim, instead, that reason is the ultimate starting point for all knowledge, arguing that we are born with some innate beliefs and principles. The British philosopher, John Locke (1632 - 1704), is one of the best known philosophers who identifies with the empiricist point of view. Locke proposed the fundamental idea of empiricism - that all of the knowledge and ideas that exist in our mind are the result of the experiences that we have and that everything that we believe and think consists of ideas of sensation and reflection.
Through sensations, we create ideas in regards to what exists, for example, colours, smells, tastes and, through reflection, such as remembering and thinking, we make sense of these sensations. Locke therefore surmised that individuals learn largely through experience, parental guidance and perception. The American psychologist, John Watson, expanded on this work and theorised that it would be possible to take a group of infants and, by controlling their environment and the things to which they were exposed, make one a doctor, another a thief, another a painter, and so on. He believed that hereditary factors are entirely irrelevant in terms of how an individual develops their personality and character.
The other side of the argument, favouring nature over nurture, is well researched by Francis Galton, particularly in his books, 'Hereditary Genius' (1869) and 'English Men of Science: Their Nature and Nurture' (1874). In his work, Galton investigated the links between parents and children's intelligence levels and found that intelligence was generally inherited. He believed that both parents contributed one quarter each of the hereditary intelligence to their child, with grandparents contributing one sixteenth, and so on.
Galton believed that the reason that nature (over nurture) was a predominant factor in the psychological development of children was in order to ensure the so called 'survival of the fittest', so that evolution would ensure that superior physical and mental traits survived in the human race. Prior to this, the German philosopher of the 18th century, Immanuel Kant, believed that the human mind is not able to make sense of its external environment and the experiences that it has, unless there is a base mental structure already in existence, which enables it to attach a meaning to that particular experience.
Activity 1: What type of external experiences can impact psychological
development?
Estimated time: 10 - 15 minutes
Take another look at Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development. Choose any two of the stages, and take some time to think about the different types of occurrences or experiences that might take place in each stage, which could have an impact on the individual's psychological development, both positively and negatively. Write down your ideas - you could even draw on personal examples, if you have any.
5.8 Bandura's Social Learning Theory and its Application
Building on the themes explored by John Locke in the 17th century, Albert Bandura, a contemporary philosopher, sought to explain the impact of social observations on the psychological behaviour and development of humans. Bandura conducted a series of important experiments, which have come to be known as the Bobo Doll experiments. In summary, he made a group of children watch someone violently attacking an inflatable doll, aiming to observe how they subsequently viewed such behaviour. He found that the children that had witnessed this act were very susceptible to repeating such behaviour, even without being offered a reward or a threat of not doing so.
In evaluating his findings, Bandura asserted that development happens via a process of learning through social behaviour, i.e., behaviours that are witnessed and, to a degree 'normalised', are more likely to be re-enacted by the observer. Bandura's theories have proven to be important concepts in the field of developmental psychology, as it is increasingly recognised that the behaviour that an infant witnesses through their external environment, including via their parents, family or immediate circle, can have a profound impact on their own future behaviour and personality.
A good example of how this theory has been adopted in everyday life is:
The age rating system for films - the objective of which is to prevent susceptible young children from viewing negative material, which may influence their future behaviour. Furthermore, Bandura also expanded his theory, in an attempt to explain patterns of criminal behaviour, believing that deviance is a learned behaviour, which the individual develops as an avoidance strategy, after being subjected to some kind of traumatic experience relating to humiliation or pain. Bandura carried out an analysis of a number of American serial murderers, in order to back up his claims.
Activity 2: Where do you sit in the Nature versus Nurture debate?
Estimated time: 10 minutes
Revisit the theories of well-known philosophers, such as John Locke and William Galton, with regards to whether nature or nurture contributes more towards an individual's psychological development. Weighing up both sides of the argument, which do you believe has more of an impact, and why? If you believe that both nature and nurture contribute equally, give your reasons.
Assignment:Developmental Psychology
Time: 30+ minutes
Hopefully, you took in as much of the information in this module as possible. To find out how well you have done, complete the following worksheet.
Module Summary
In this module, you gained an understanding of the field of developmental psychology through an overview of the works of some of the leading thinkers in the field. The module began with a definition of developmental psychology and its application in today's world. You then learnt about the ground-breaking but often controversial work of Sigmund Freud in relation to the development of children and the fixations that can impact their adult lives. We also studied the work of Jean Piaget and his concept of schemata or the organisation of information in the mind. Following this, we moved on to a more detailed look at Erik Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development, how it links to Freud's work and the key stages to which Erikson attributed crises, which must be overcome, in order to achieve healthy adult behaviours. We then examined the link between nature and nurture in the development of individuals' characteristics and personalities, specifically the concepts of empiricism and rationalism and some of the better known philosophers in each area. Finally, you learnt about the work of Bandura and the application of his social learning theory, which states that psychological development happens via a process of learning through social behaviour.
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