8.1 Introduction
One of the most direct applications of educational psychology is teaching. As discussed in earlier modules, learning is deeply connected to development and behaviour. It is a complicated process that includes cognition, motivation, memory, social interaction and various kinds of communication. Psychological science helps us understand each of these elements of learning. It provides a rich source of knowledge that can be applied to teaching practice and can guide teachers in how to structure learning environments and instructional activities.
The application of educational psychology to teaching helps us understand the following:
-How students think and learn
-How students can be motivated to engage in education
-How social contexts, interpersonal relationships and emotional wellbeing can be important factors for learning
-How teachers can manage classrooms
-How learning and progress assessments can be effective
This module outlines some important contributions that educational psychology has made in relation to our understanding of how learning occurs and directly links that knowledge with strategies for educators.
8.2 Beliefs Regarding Intelligence
The way in which students conceptualise intelligence affects their cognitive function and their learning. The 'entity' theory of intelligence proposes that people have a fixed or static intelligence that cannot change. Students that hold this view are more likely to attribute their academic successes or failures to their ability or being 'smart enough'. This view of intelligence is associated with taking fewer learning risks, being more vulnerable to negative feedback, giving up more quickly in the face of challenges and to poorer learning outcomes.
Alternatively, students may see intelligence as a trait that can change. This is called the 'growth' or 'incremental' view of intelligence. Students with this mindset are more likely to attribute their successes and failures to the effort that they put into the task. They tend to be more willing to take on challenging learning tasks, are more likely to persist through failure and ultimately see better learning outcomes. Teachers are able to foster a growth mindset in their students, by helping to make attributions about their students' learning outcomes as based on effort, as opposed to ability.
For example
They can point out that a poor grade for a task may reflect the student not having put enough time into the task and that, with increased effort, they will have a better outcome next time. Teachers should avoid making attributions based on innate ability.
For example, rather than praising a student's good work, by saying, 'You're so smart,' a teacher could ensure that the praise is linked to effort, for example, 'You worked so hard for this grade.'
8.3 The Importance of Practice
In order for students to know something, they must remember it. An essential piece of learning is processing and encoding information into long-term memory. Practice is fundamental to this encoding process, but not all practice is equal - quality matters.
Deliberate practice
Deliberate practice is practice that is purposeful and systematic and focuses attention on the task, while rehearsing it. It is highly structured and done with a specific goal of improving performance. It has been shown to be much more effective than simple repetition and memorisation in terms of achieving learning outcomes.
Teachers can encourage deliberate practice in their students. One way in which they can do this is by emphasising to their students the importance of practice and that focused attention and rehearsal are more effective than habitual memorisation. They can also design class activities, in order to create opportunities for deliberate practice. One especially effective way of doing this is to create practice questions and tests at regular intervals.
By their nature, practice tests require focus and attention. Brief tests given immediately after learning a topic are particularly effective, as are tests with open-ended questions. As student skill and knowledge level increase, these tests and practice questions should become correspondingly challenging. The value of these activities is not to assess a student's learning progress but, instead, to give them an opportunity to retrieve the information that they have learned in a deliberate and focused way.
Fact
It is estimated that a minimum of 3,000 hours of deliberate practice is required, in order to obtain mastery of a subject or skill.
Source: Campitelli, G., & Gobet, F. (2011)
Effective Feedback
Feedback is information to the student regarding their performance. Findings and research from educational psychology provides guidance on how teachers can structure feedback, so that it is effective at enhancing learning. Merely writing 'excellent' on a piece of written work is not effective feedback because it does not help the student to see what they did that was so successful. Instead, feedback is best when it is clear, specific, explanatory and timely. Teachers can foster learning in their students, by providing feedback that relates the student's performance to their particular learning goals and their past performance. The feedback should both identify the strengths of the students' work and also give information regarding opportunities that the student may have for improvement.
Feedback is most effective when it is given immediately. When it is not possible to deliver immediate feedback, aim to give the feedback as soon as possible. While alphabetical and numeric grades are given as a form of feedback in many learning environments, feedback should not consist solely of grades - it should include written or verbal comments from the instructor.
Activity 1: Fostering learning by applying lessons from educational psychology
Estimated time: 10-15 minutes
Imagine that you are a teacher and that you have just graded a writing assignment for one of your students. You know that the student will be disappointed with their grade. Explain how you can provide feedback, using the concepts discussed above, in order to help the student improve. What would you say, and why?
8.4 Fostering Creativity
Many people equate creativity with art or music. They see creativity as a spontaneous process that occurs in people with particular talents. Educational psychology takes a different view of creativity. Creativity can be defined as the generation of ideas that are new and useful in a particular situation. It can include and defining a set of problems, generating solutions to problems, linking together existing ideas in new ways and effectively communicating ideas.
Creativity is an important element of learning. Research in psychology has shown that creativity is not a fixed trait but can be practised and fostered in schools and other learning environments. While it can be spontaneous, much research in psychology has shown that creativity can be the result of disciplined thinking. Teachers can foster creativity in their students. They can ensure that their lessons include activities that can be accomplished in a variety of ways. Similarly, teachers should be careful that they do not consider student answers to be incorrect, simply because they are not what the teacher was expecting.
During discussions, teachers can emphasise the importance of a diversity of opinions and perspectives. They can create opportunities for brainstorming and actively elicit opinions or ideas that are different from those that have already been expressed. They can reinforce the value of different opinions, by choosing encouraging language. Teachers can also model creativity. Rather than teaching a single strategy for solving a problem, teachers may demonstrate several different ways of solving the same problem and then ask if the students can think of any others ways of solving it.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Students differ in the motivation that they have for engaging in educational activities. Intrinsic motivation describes motivation that comes from within yourself. Students are intrinsically motivated to engage in educational tasks, when they enjoy the tasks or they find the process of learning fun and rewarding. Extrinsic motivation describes motivation that comes from outside yourself. It includes being motivated to complete a task, in order to or achieve a particular result or to earn praise, high grades or money, amongst other things. Students who are intrinsically motivated tend to have improved educational outcomes.
They tend to persist through challenges to a greater extent, pay more attention to instructions and better integrate and organise information, compared to students who are more extrinsically motivated. They also tend to be less anxious about achieving success. To promote intrinsic motivation, it is important that teachers try to give students tasks that are challenging enough that students develop knowledge and skills but not so challenging that they are not enjoyable.
Tasks that are challenging but doable are the most enjoyable for students and, therefore, will be the most likely to result in intrinsic motivation. As previously discussed, teachers should also be thoughtful regarding how the grades that they give to their students are used. Teachers may emphasise that alphabetical or numeric grades are meant to provide information about the strength of students' work, as opposed to being provided as a reward or punishment.
8.5 Performance and Mastery Goals
The kinds of goals that students set for themselves matter, in terms of their performance and learning. Psychologists distinguish between two types of goals: performance goals and mastery goals. Performance Goals are goals that focus on achieving a particular performance outcome, such as earning a specific grade. Mastery Goals are goals that focus on obtaining, improving or mastering a skill or knowledge discipline. Performance goals can lead to students avoiding situations and tasks that are challenging or whereby they think there is a possibility of not obtaining their desired performance outcome.
On the other hand, students who create mastery goals often persist through challenging tasks, in order to develop their skills to a higher level. Educators can foster the development of mastery goals in their students. When providing instructions, teachers can emphasise the importance of individual effort and learning, over the importance of obtaining a specific grade. Educators can also foster mastery goals, by giving more time to students that need it. Students develop skills at different rates; it is important to give them adequate opportunity to successfully complete tasks. Upon completion of the task, teachers can ensure that their feedback does not consist solely of an alphabetical or numeric grade, but that it references the development of the specific skill. Teachers should avoid making direct comparisons between different students because this focuses on particular levels of performance. Instead, teachers may choose to emphasise growth or development in the student. When discussing mistakes, teachers should emphasise that these are opportunities to improve and are a natural part of learning.
Properties of Goal Setting
Time matters in relation to
goals, time matters. Goals that are short-term tend to be more motivating than
those that are long-term. Short-term goals allow a student to regularly see
their development, which enhances their self-efficiency or their perceived
ability to be able to complete a task. Students with higher self-efficiency for
a particular task have been found to be more motivated to complete that task.
Goals that are very long-term are not as motivating because it is more
difficult to judge the level of progress that has been made. In order to make
long-term goals more motivating, they can be broken down into smaller,
short-term goals. Specificity matters in relation to goals. Specific goals are
better than general goals because they are easier to monitor and quantify.
Creating specific goals leads to better learning outcomes than general goals.
Difficulty also matters in
relation to goals. Easy goals do not present a challenge and, therefore, do not
prompt growth in students. Goals that are too challenging are not perceived as
attainable and can overwhelm the student. Research has found that moderately
difficult goals are the most motivating and lead to the best learning outcomes.
Teachers can help students feel motivated to learn, by providing them with
opportunities to create appropriate goals - those that are specific, short-term
and moderately difficult.
Fact
In one study, setting specific goals increased the number of students making 'adequate growth' at school by 9%. Source: jsard.org
8.6 Teacher Expectations Influence Learning
Educators hold expectations for the performance and abilities of their students, which can influence how the teacher interacts with the students. Their expectations can inform how the teacher provides class instruction, what activities are included in the lesson, the extent and kind of support given to students, how students are grouped, how they are evaluated, and so on. While most teachers will often have appropriate expectations for their students, sometimes, teachers hold beliefs that are inaccurate and that can have detrimental effects on their students.
A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true. Teacher expectations can unintentionally become self-fulfilling prophecies - if they believe that a student can accomplish a task, when that student struggles, the teacher may provide them with extra support, to enable them to complete the task.
On the other hand, if a teacher does not believe that a student is able to succeed in a task, they may behave in ways that make it more difficult for the student to succeed. Research in psychology has shown that stereotypes regarding the academic ability of stigmatised groups - such as an ethnic minority youth or an economically disadvantaged youth - have resulted in teachers behaving differently towards these groups, including asking them fewer questions in class, providing them with less support, giving less clear and specific feedback on work and paying them less attention. Ultimately, this can contribute to poorer student performance.
To address this, teachers can try to be aware of the expectations that they hold for their students and understand that these expectations can influence learning outcomes. Teachers should aim to communicate high expectations for all of their students. They may use previous academic history, in order to help inform them, but they should also be mindful that a previous academic history is not always an accurate predictor of future success. In particular, race, gender and social class should not become the foundation for low expectations of a student's ability. Furthermore, teachers should aim to provide the same level of attention, the same level of detailed feedback and the same support to all students, regardless of their expectations of success.
Activity 2: Consider how expectations could influence your teaching
Estimated time: 10-15 minutes
Imagine that you are a teacher, and someone has just explained to you that your expectations of a student's abilities could influence how you interact with them and, ultimately, could influence their learning outcomes. Think of some ways in which you could do a check of your classroom and your behaviour. What are some things that you might look for?
For example, you could answer, 'I could ensure that the front of the class is not made up of mostly students whom I expect to do well, while the back is mostly made up of students whom I do not expect to do well.' Think of four or five examples.
8.7 Social Contexts
All students are part of multiple, overlapping social groups, which include their families, schools and communities. These are further influenced by the wider society and the culture in which they are embedded. All of these affect learning. Understanding the social contexts in which a student is embedded can help the teacher to create meaningful learning activities. Teachers may find it especially useful to meaningfully connect with others who are important in the lives of students. Research has found that the learning outcomes for students whose parents are more involved in their education tend to be higher.
Furthermore, students often find that activities that connect them with the wider society can be especially meaningful. Ideas for activities that allow for this connection include writing newspaper editorial pieces on a topic about which the student is passionate and then actually submitting them to the newspaper. Working to further establish the sense of connection between a student and their family or community can enhance their learning, along with their sense of identity.
Research in educational psychology has also made it clear that one essential component for learning is that students feel safe. This can include safety from bullying. One important way in which teachers can support the learning of their students is to deliberately create a social context in the classroom that supports students, by encouraging interaction that is based on safety, inclusion, respect and shared values.
Emotional Wellbeing Influences Learning Outcomes
Students learn, function and
develop best, when they have good wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing is an
especially important factor for children in the classroom. It is essential in
terms of interacting with peers and teachers, being ready to participate in
classroom exercises and communicating effectively. There are many aspects to
emotional wellbeing, including: A sense of self, including self-esteem A sense
of control over the things that happens to you, including self-efficiency
Positive feelings, such as happiness and contentment
The capacity to cope with everyday stresses
Teachers play a very important
role in creating emotional wellbeing in their students, by establishing a
classroom culture whereby students feel valued and also by treating all
students with dignity and respect. Teachers also play a role in promoting
socio-emotional development in their students. Children continue to develop
their ability to regulate their emotions, as they approach adulthood. At
younger ages, adults play a large role in helping children to regulate their
emotions. For example, teachers can teach self-regulation strategies, such as
taking deep breaths, in order to calm down, or expressing emotions in
constructive and appropriate ways. Teachers can also help their students, by providing
a vocabulary of emotion words that students can use, in order to describe their
emotions. In older children, teachers can encourage the recognition not just of
your own feelings, but those of other people. Research has found that empathy
and compassion are not traits but skills. Teachers can play a role in providing
activities that encourage students to develop these skills.
8.8 Classroom Management
Effective classroom management is
a very important part of creating learning environments that support students.
Classroom management is most effective when there is a clear structure and
appropriate support. Students need a clear understanding of what is expected of
them, and the expectations should be consistently reinforced. Establishing a
regular routine is also helpful. Students can learn appropriate classroom
conduct in the same way that they learn other subjects. This means that
teachers can use the same strategies that they use in other subjects, in order
to teach students how to behave appropriately in the classroom. These
strategies include the following:
-Goal-setting
-Praise and reinforcement of appropriate behaviour
-Creating opportunities for practice
-Specific, timely and clear feedback
For the greatest impact, classroom rules and expectations should be taught to students early in the school year and then regularly reinforced throughout.
Assessment of Progress
Educational psychology provides
some insight into how student progress can be assessed. Formative assessments
are used, in order to guide and shape classroom instruction. They can include
assessments carried out before instruction, which helps the educator understand
how much knowledge the class is starting with. They can also be carried out
throughout the learning process. The goal of these assessments is to ensure
that the current learning activities are appropriate for the students.
Summative assessments are used, in order to glean an overall sense of how much
content a student has learned, against some benchmark. These assessments are
typically carried out after instruction - after a unit has been completed or at
the end of the term. They are often used as tools, to evaluate student
achievement or to determine whether the student has earned a particular grade.
Formative assessments can be effective tools, in order to improve students'
learning. They can be especially effective, if instructors systematically use
the assessments, in order to create or adjust the goals for their students,
determine whether the students are meeting their goals and modify or adapt
their instruction appropriately. Teachers should also aim to use assessments
that meet basic principles of quality and fairness. Educational psychology and
other disciplines have well-developed theory around the standards that make an
assessment high-quality. These include using tests that are an appropriate in
length, are reliable (which means that they achieve consistent results) and are
valid (they successfully measure what they intend to measure). Assessments that
are reliable and valid allow the teacher to make appropriate judgements
regarding a particular student's ability and knowledge. However, if the test is
not reliable or valid these inferences can be inaccurate and can have negative
consequences for the student.
Assignment
Applying Educational Psychology to Teaching
Time: 30+ minutes
Hopefully, you took in as much of the information in this module as possible.
Module Summary
Researchers in educational psychology have shown that the beliefs that students have in relation to intelligence affect learning and that a growth mindset leads to the best learning outcomes. It has been demonstrated that practice, and, in particular, deliberate practice, is essential for the mastery of any subject. Feedback is also important, and it is most effective when it is clear, specific, explanatory, timely and made with direct reference to the student's goals. Educational psychology has shown that creativity is not a fixed trait but that it is a skill that can be developed by teachers. Educational psychology has provided several insights regarding motivation that can be applied to teaching. Students that are intrinsically motivated tend to achieve better learning outcomes than those who are extrinsically motivated. Motivation can also be impacted by the kinds of goals that students make. Short-term, specific and moderately difficult goals foster the most motivation and the best learning outcomes in students. Mastery goals also tend to result in more motivation and improved learning than performance goals. The social context in which a student lives affects their learning.
This includes their interpersonal relationships, their family, their community, the culture in which they grow up and their emotional wellbeing. An important part of this social context is the culture that the teacher fosters in their classrooms. Children must feel safe in their environment, in order to learn effectively, and teachers should foster a culture of safety and respect within their class, in order to achieve optimal learning outcomes. Creating a consistent structure and clear expectations for the students facilitates their learning. Finally, this module discussed the role that educational psychology has in understanding how assessments can be used, not only to evaluate a student's progress, but also to inform the methods of instruction. It is important that the assessments used to evaluate a student's performance are fair, reliable and valid.
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